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Purdue  University. 

7 Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


C.  S.  PLUMB,  Director. 


1 


lyaFayette,  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  91,  Vol.  XI  Tanuarv  1002 

T.e  preceding  ,unetin  was  NO.  90,  Oc  Jer,  1901,  Intre^Uy  ^ 


The  Modern  Silo. 


by  C.  S.  PrUMB. 


In  June  1892,  a bulletin  of  20  pages  was  prepared  by  the 
writer  and  published  by  this  Station,  under  the  title,  “The  silo  and 
silage  in  Indiana."  This  bulletin  contained  information  on  silo 
construction,  crops  for  silage  and  brief  experimental  results  in 
leeding  silage  at  this  and  other  stations.  Reports  were  also  giv- 


Fig.  I.  Wi.sconsin  silos  of  Dr.  Thompson. 

cn^  from  35  persons  in  the  State  who  had  used  or  were  then 
using  si  os;  the  oldest  one  reported  in  use  being  that  of  Mr.  C. 
!•  .Harris  of  Goshen,  who  adopted  the  silo  in  1885.  Of  the  33 
persons  reporting,  only  one  had  made  use  of  the  round  form 


84 


Since  the  publication  of  this  bulletin  in  1892,  a great  ad- 
vancement has  taken  place  in  silo  construction.  At  the  present 
time,  nearly  all  of  the  silos  made  are  circular  in  form,  prominent 
among  which  is  the  stave  of  tub  type.  In  1892  perhaps  not  over 
50  persons  at  the  outside  owned  silos  in  the  state.  Today  there 
are  many  in  the  dairy  districts,  and  just  at  present  the  subject  of 
silo  construction  is  attracting  much  interest  among  farmers.  It 
is  to  supply  the  demand  for  this  information,  that  this  bulle- 
tin is  published  for  the  special  assistance  of  Indiana  farmers  de- 
siring suggestions  on  silo  construction. 

Previous  to  1898  at  the  Indiana  Station  the  silos  in  use  con- 
sisted of  two  small  square  ones  in  the  cattle  barn  where  they 
were  constructed  in  1889.  These  were  each  15  feet  square  and 
20  feet  deep  and  held  about  60  tons  each. 

The  square  silo,  however,  does  not  represent  the  most 
economical  or  desirable  construction.  There  are  corners  in 
which  the  silage  does  not  always  pack  satisfactorily,  and  where 
losses  through  decay  very  often  occur.  Further,  the  square  or 
rectangular  wooden  silo  often  weakens  with  age,  and  spreads  at 
the  sides,  and  consequently  the  silage  ruined  by  the  entrance  of 
air  at  these  weak  points.  This  defective  feature  of  the  straight- 
sided silo,  led  to  the  adoption  a dozen  or  so  years  ago  of  the  cir- 
cular or  round  silo. 

The  round  silo  has  two  distinct  advantages. 

First — There  are  no  corners  in  which  decay  may  develop. 

Second — The  pressure  is  equally  distributed  from  the  center 
to  each  side,  so  that  there  is  no  unequal  strain  upon  the  walls  or 
sides  of  the  silo  of  this  form,  while  the  pressure  from  above  on 
the  silage  below  is  uniformly  distributed. 

These  advantages  have  been  found  to  be  so  distinct  and 
important  that  at  this  time  but  comparatively  few  silos  are 
built,  excepting  of  the  circular  form. 

There  are  several  types  of  silos  that  it  is  proposed  to  discuss 
in  this  bulletin,  each  of  which  has  its  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages, and  many  of  the  wooden  forms  of  each  have  been  con- 
structed and  are  used  with  general  satisfaction. 


85 

Wisconsin  Round  Silo. 


In  the  summer  of  1891,  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
published  a bulletin  (No.  28)  on  the  construction  of  silos,  in  which 
the  first  detailed  or  illustrated  description  of  a round  silo  was  giv- 
en in  a station  bulletin.  The  recommendations  given  in  this  bul- 
letin no  doubt  resulted  in  the  construction  of  a large  number  of 


Fig.  2.  Dia(jram  sfiowin{j  construction  of  Wisconsin  Silo,  after  King.  A,  gen- 
eral view.  B,  shows  placing  of  studding.  C,  underside  of  roof,  looking  up. 
Rafters  are  not  used  for  conical  roofs,  but  circles  instead,  made  by  bending  and 
nailing  together  strips  of  half  inch  lining,  making  a hoop  or  circular  plate  4 
inches  thick,  as  shown  in  C.  Roof  boards  in  C and  II  are  made  by  cutting  8-inch 
common  lx)ards  in  two  diagonally.  D,  shows  wall,  with  studs,  sheeting,  paper  be- 
tween and  where  cement  and  wall  joint.  E,  .shows  method  of  ventilation.  F and  G 
shows  construction  of  feeding  doors,  which  open  inside.  Filling  door  should  be 
three  feet  wide  to  allow  for  a man  (o  enter  by  side  of  carrier  or  blower. 


86 


round  silos,  based  on  the  description  given  by  Professor  King. 
This  silo  is  so  admirable  in  character  that  it  is  thought  best  to 
briefly  give  its  construction  herewith.  The  illustration  on  the 
first  page  is  of  a pair  of  silos  of  this  type  on  the  farm  of  Dr. 
Thompson  near  Indianapolis.  Figure  2 is  reproduced  by  court- 
esy of  the  Wisconsin  Station. 

The  foundation  may  be  marked  out  by  driving  a stake  in  the 
ground  at  the  center  of  the  desired  site,  driving  on  level  ground 
to  the  height  of  the  desired  wall.  A nail  should  then  be  driven 
in  the  top  of  the  stake.  Next  take  a straight-edged  stick  of  con- 
venient material,  plenty  long  enough  to  measure  more  than  half 
the  diameter  of  the  proposed  silo.  Bore  a hole  in  one  end  of  the 
stick,  so  that  it  may  neatly  slip  over  the  nail,  and  saw  the  other 
end  off,  so  that  it  may  describe  a circle  when  turned  on  the  stake, 
equal  to  the  size  of  the  silo.  If  desired,  the  outer  end  of  the 
stick  may  represent  the  outer  circle  of  the  wall  and  a mark  on 
the  stick  at  suitable  distance,  the  inner  edge  of  wall. 

The  foundation  may  be  made  of  stone,  brick  or  concrete,  and 
it  is  desirable  to  have  it  at  least  12  inches  above  the  ground,  and 
two  to  three  feet  below  the  surface.  In  fact  it  will  be  well  to  have 
the  silo  in  part  below  the  ground,  though  not  to  a depth  such  as 
to  make  emptying  difficult.  Four  or  five  feet  below  however,  will 
not  be  unsatisfactory.  The  wall  should  be  air-tight,  with  a thick- 
ness of  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet  for  silos  25  to  30  feet  high. 

Sill  pieces  of  2xq’s  should  be  cut  in  sections  about  two  feet 
long  and  on  the  curve  of  the  wall,  bedded  in  mortar  and  toe- 
nailed  together. 

The  studs  should  be  of  2xq^s  and  of  length  depending  on 
depth  of  silo.  A silo  28  feet  deep  can  use  studs  16  and  12  feet  long 
to  advantage.  If  four  feet  of  wall  is  a part  of  the  silo  depth, 
then  studs  14  and  10  feet  long  are  desirable.  The  studs  should 
be  placed  a foot  apart  from  center  to  center,  unless  the  silo  is 
over  30  feet  in  diameter.  This  is  to  give  a chance  to  keep  the  lin- 
ing nailed  close  and  to  the  curve  of  the  circle.  The  studs  should 
alternate  in  length,  as  for  example  a 16  feet  length  being  nailed  to 
the  sill  first,  then  a 12,  then  16,  etc.  The  upper  line  of  studs  will 


87 


of  course  alternate  to  bring  the  top  on  a common  level.  Thes» 
studs  may  be  held  in  place,  by  naili'ng  a connecting  strip  on 
them  and  a post  set  in  the  center  of  the  silo  and  five  or  six  feet 
higher  than  the  sill.  Plumb  each  stud  towards  the  center  of  the 
silo.  After  a number  of  studs  have  been  set  and  toe-nailed  flush  to 
the  front  of  the  sill  which  lays  against  the  outer  side  of  the  wall, 
plumbed  and  fastened  by  stays,  they  may  be  held  together  on 
the  outside  by  a piece  of  sheeting  nailed  on  temporarily  as  In'o-h 
up  as  a man  can  reach.  In  this  way  the  first  line  of  studs  may  be 
erected.  W here  the  doors  are  to  be  located  place  an  extra  stud 
along  side  the  studs  to  furnish  sides  to  the  doors,  and  space  the 
door  studs  far  enough  apart  to  make  a comfortable  width,  say 
24  inches.  Leave  a stud  standing  between  the  double  studs  at 
center  of  where  the  doors  are  to  be.  This  can  be  cut  out  in  il’oor 
spaces  later. 

The  sheeting  should  be  made  of  first  class  lumber.  Leave 
out  black  knots  and  shaky  boards.  No.  i fencing  ripped  to  form 
scant  half-inch  boards  will  do.  Two  inch  planks  sawed  to  make 
four  boards  is  really  a more  profitable  purchase  of  timber  than 
using  fencing. 

Begin  at  bottom  of  studs  in  putting  on  the  sheeting,  work- 
ing upward.  Put  on  first  a layer  of  sheeting  around  interior  as 
high  as  can  be  conveniently  reached  by  hand,  and  then  begin  the 
second  layer,  placing  between  the  two  a layer  of  first  grade  acid 
I^roof,  tarred  paper,  lack  the  paper  on  at  intervals,  and  let  the 
paper  over-lap  six  or  eight  inches.  See  that  the  sheeting  breaks 
joints  by  lapping  half  over  the  boards  above  and  below  it.  Also 
nail  sheeting  so  that  each  round  will  begin  with  the  next  stud  be- 
yond the  one  the  previous  course  began  with.  Use  two  eight- 
jienny  nails  in  each  board  in  each  stud.  Staging  may  be  erected 
in  the  silo  by  little  trouble  on  2x4^s,  supported  at  the  height  de- 
sired by  uprights,  and  cross  planks  nailed  to  2x4’s  to  make  a ser- 
viceable working  platform.  Always  keep  the  studs  plumb  and 
rigid  for  working  on,  and  be  sure  that  the  rounds  of  sheeting  are 
kept  level  in  the  courses,  anrl  are  nailed  close  to  the  studs  or 
undcr  .sheeting.  .Fig  2 at  D.  gives  a sectional  view,  showing  the 


88 


lapping  of  sheeting  with  the  tarred  paper  between,  this  illustration 
being  from  bulletin  59  of  the  Wisconsin  Station.  The  outside  of 
this  silo  may  be  covered  with  a layer  of  lap  siding  to  suit  the  cir- 
cumstances. If  the  silo  is  over  18  feet  in  diameter,  it  is  advised  to 
first  put  on  the  studs  a layer  of  half  inch  sheeting,  and  over  this 
drop  siding.  If  the  silo  is  small,  say  10  or  12  feet  in  diameter, 
chen  half-inch  sheeting  only  can  be  used,  as  the  heavier  siding 
will  not  bend  to  the  short  curve  of  the  small  silo. 

The  plate  is  made  similar  to  sill,  from  two  foot  pieces,  sawed 
to  the  curve  and  spiked  to  the  top  of  studs.  The  top  line  of  sheet- 
ing on  one  side  should  not  come  to  the  plate,  but  a space  of  an 
inch  or  two  be  left,  over  w^hich  wire  mesh  can  be  tacked  to  keep 
out  mice  and  rats  and  through  which  a circulation  of  air  can  pass 
from  between  the  studs.  The  draft  from  blow  can  be  secured 
by  boring  holes  in  outside  lining  with  a good  sizer  auger,  just 
above  sills  and  wire  mesh  also  tacked  over  this  to  keep  out  the 
vermin.  Ventilation  is  necessary  between  the  studs  to  pre- 
vent decay  of  the  woodwork,  which  would  gather  moisture  but 
for  a circulation  of  air. 

The  lining  between  the  sheeting,  as  already  stated,  should 
be  tarred  paper,  of  high  grade,  and  acid  and  water  proof.  If  one 
desires  to  go  to  the  added  expense,  light  weight  galvanized  iron 
may  be  used  as  lining.  This  will  strengthen  the  silo  as  paper  will 
not,  and  has  more  durability. 

The  doors  should  be  in  line  over  each  other  between  the 
double  sets  of  studs  already  referred  to,  and  about  two  and  a 
half  feet  apart.  The  layers  of  sheeting  should  be  cut  out  between 
the  studs,  to  make  openings  the  width  between  the  double  studs 
and  30  inches  high  or  more.  Each  door  may  be  made  of  tongue 
and  grooved  flooring,  nailed  and  screwed  to  another  layer  of  the 
same  stuff  cross  laid  to  it,  with  heavy  tarred  paper  between.  This 
door  should  be  placed  against  the  jambs  formed  by  the  two  inside 
studs,  and  held  in  place  by  lag  screws.  The  door  should  be 
placed  flush  with  the  inside  lining,  with  its  vertical  boards  inside. 
A gasket  of  rubberoid  roofing  can  with  advantage  be  placed  be- 
tween door  and  jamb,  and  when  the  silo  is  to  be  filled,  a layer  of 


89 


roofing  paper  well  lapped  over  the  entire  door  will  help  preserve 
the  silage  at  this  point.  Mr.  H.  E.  VanNorman  of  this  Station 
in  Fig.  3 suggests  another  door  construction. 


Fig.  3.  Directions  for  Consiructing  Door  in  Wisconsiiv  Silo. 

By  H.  E.  VanNorman. 

1 and  2 are  the  two  thicknesses  of  sheeting  put  on  horizontally 
which  make  up  the  walls  of  the  silo. 

3 and  4 are  the  pieces  jointly  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  silo 
wall,  which  constitute  the  door  and  that  are  nailed  to  the  2x4  cleats. 


90 


No  5.  vertically,  put  on  with  paper  between  and  breaking  joints. 

Nos.  8,  8 are  2x6  used  instead  of  the  2x4  studs  which  come  each 
side  of  the  doors. 

No.  7 is  a cleat  1::2 — 20  inches  long  nailed  or  bolted  to  the  2x6  op- 
posite the  doorway. 

Nos.  5,  5 are  2x4’s  cut  on  one  side  to  the  curve  of  the  silo  wall  and 
notched  at  opposite  sides  to  make  room  for  wedge. 

No.  6 which  is  driven  in  between  the  cleat  on  the  door  and  the  strip 
on  the  studding  to  hold  the  door  in  place. 

On  each  side  of  the  row  of  openings  use  2x6  studs  in  places  of  2x4. 
When  first  sheeting  is  put  on  make  opening  the  desired  size  and  flush 
with  studs.  Make  opening  in  inner  sheeting  one  inch  smaller  on  all  four 
sides,  thus  making  a one  inch  flange  against  corresponding  flanges  in 
which  the  door  will  fit,  bringing  the  inside  face  of  the  door  flush  with 
the  inside  wall.  The  door  is  thus  held  in  place  by  wedges  driven  in  be- 
tween the  2x4  cleats,  5,  5,  on  the  door  and  the  strips  7,  7,  na,iled  or 
bolted  to  the  studs. 

Strips  for  a ladder  to  reach  the  upper  doors  may  be  nailed  on  the 
studs  8,  8,  which  will  prevent  studs  from  spreading. 

This  door  may  be  removed  from  the  outside  by  loosening  the  wedges 
without  disturbing  the  silage  against  it. 

The  roof  may  be  made  of  any  kind  desired,  but  the  conical 
form,  as  shown  on  the  first  page  is  simple  and  attractive.  Often 
the  silo  may  be  placed  next  to  the  barn,  and  a lean-to  roof  from 
the  barn  carried  over  the  silo;  this  is  cheap,  yet  serviceable. 

The  floor,  if  artificially  made,  should  be  of  cement,  being 
grouted  about  three  inches,  with  a smooth  layer  of  cement  or  con- 
crete on  the  surface.  A well  cemented  floor  has  a great  advan- 
tage in  keeping  out  the  rats,  and  to  a certain  extent  air.  The  side 
wall  should  be  plastered  over  with  cement,  and  connect  with  the 
floor  to  make  an  air  tight  joint.  Only  the  best  Portland  cement 
is  to  be  recommended  for  the  floor  and  sides  of  this  silo. 

The  Modified  Wisconsin  Silo. 

Cheap  silo  construction  in  a general  way  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended, but  the  round  silo  may  be  built  after  the  Wisconsin  idea 
in  a manner  that  will  give  very  satisfactory  service  and  yet  at  con- 
siderably reduced  cost  over  the  method  described. 

In  1901  this  Station  erected  a silo  of  about  65  tons  capacity. 


91 


which  may  be  termed  a modified  form  of  the  Wisconsin  silo. 
This  was  12  feet  inside  diameter,  28  feet  high,  using  16  and  12 
foot  studs  end  to  end,  and  the  studs  were  set  on  a circular  founda- 
tion of  two  layers  of  brick  laid  in  mortar.  The  silo  was  placed  on 
the  general  level  of  the  ground,  and  no  special  flooring  was  pro- 


I'ig.  4 Modified  Wisconsin  silo  of  W.  Gove. 

vided.  The  inside  was  sheeted  about  as  directed  in  the  preceding 
description,  although  the  studs  were  17  inches  apart.  No  siding 
was  placed  on  the  outside  of  studs  and  no  roof  was  provided.  The 
total  cost  of  this  silo  in  round  figures  was  $60.00,  not  including 
the  cost  of  labor,  which  was  supplied  by  two  of  the  regular  farm 


92 


laborers  of  the  Station.  The  lumber  involved  in  the  construction 
cost  $56.58.  This  silo  appears  strong  and  efficient  in  character. 

Fig.  4 represents  a silo  of  this  same  type,  constructed  by 
Mr.  E.  W.  Gove  on  a farm  near  I.aFayette  under  the  direction  of 
this  Station.  This  silo  is  first  class  in  every  respect,  so  far  as  con- 
structed. The  studs  are  18  inches  apart,  and  for  about  half  way 
up  there  are  three  layers  of  sheeting  against  the  studs  with  tarred 
])aper  between.  The  upper  half  of  the  studs  has  but  two  layers 
of  sheeting.  The  sheeting  was  made  by  taking  2x6  inch 
white  pine  planks  and  sawing  to  make  four  boards.  This  silo 
rests  on  a stone  wall  18  inches  deep  and  16  inches  wide.  The  silo 
is  30  feet  high,  and  is  18  feet,  4 inches  inside  diameter,  and  holds 
about  150  tons.  An  inexpensive  but  durable  roof  was  placed  over 
it.  The  cost  of  this  structure,  as  given  to  the  writer,  is  as  fol- 
lows. As  the  work  was  all  done  by  the  regular  farm  help  at  odd 
liours,  the  item  of  labor  is  given  as  an  estimated  cost:  Studding, 
$13.03  ; sheeting,  $63.00 ; 5 rolls  paper,  $6.25  ; nails,  $2.40 ; cement 
for  \vall,  $2.40;  labor,  $20.00;  total  $107.08.  The  owner  of  this 
silo  is  so  pleased  with  the  service  this  one  has  rendered  since  its 
construction,  that  he  now  plans  to  build  another  like  it  this  sum- 
mer of  1902.  This  silo  as  is  indicated  by  the  illustration,  is  con- 
nected by  a covered  passage  and  chute  with  the  feeding  fioor  of 
the  cattle  barn. 

The  construction  of  this  type  of  silo  calls  for  as  much  care 
in  putting  on  sheeting,  making  doors  and  keeping  out  air  at  these 
])laces  and  at  the  foundations,  as  is  recpiired  with  the  more  ex- 
pensive form  first  described.  The  need  for  outer  siding  will  de- 
pended in  a measure  on  circumstances.  Mr.  Gove  has  had  no 
trouble  with  his  silage  freezing  this  winter,  while  the  silage  at 
this  Station  froze  in  for  a distance  of  a foot  or  more.  Silage, 
however,  is  usually  warm,  although  that  in  our  silo  the  past  win- 
ter, for  almost  the  first  time  in  the  experience  of  this  Station  was 
cold,  so  that  no  heat  was  at  hand  to  practically  resist  freezing.  In 
northern  Indiana  the  siding  would  naturally  be  more  necessarv 
than  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state,  but  generally  speaking,  in 
the  writer’s  opinion  siding  is  not  necessary,  although  it  docs  ma- 
terially add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  silo. 


93 


The  Stave  or  Tank  Silo. 

The  stave  silo  represents  a type  that  has  become  very  popu- 
lar during  the  past  few  years.  This  is  of  more  recent  adoption 
than  the  Wisconsin  form.  Stave  silos  are  now  extensively  in  use 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  find  many 
advocates. 

In  1898  this  Station  erected  a stave  silo.  This  was  12  feet 
inside  diameter,  and  28  feet  high,  16  and  12  foot  staves  being 
used  to  get  the  necessary  height.  This  silo  did  not  extend  below 
ground,  and  the  foundation  which  was  laid  out  as  directed  for 
ihe  Wisconsin  round  type,  was  about  two  feet  deep. 

In  the  construction  of  this  silo  white  pine  staves  were  used, 
dressed  on  four  sides  and  with  each  edge  bevelled  1-16  inch.  The 
staves  alternated  in  length,  so  that  16  and  12  foot  lengths  came 
side  by  side.  The  butting  ends  were  held  together  by  a strip  of 
galvanized  iron  sheeting  2x5  inches,  which  was  placed  in  a notch 
for  the  purpose  sawed  in  the  ends  of  the  butting  staves.  Ten 
hoops  of  five-eighths  inch  round  iron,  with  three-fourths  inch 
ends  threaded  eight  inches  were  used,  the  ends  being  welded  on 
rhe  rods.  These  were  in  two  parts  to  facilitate  tightening.  As  a 
support  for  the  hoops  at  two  points  on  opposite  sides  of  the  silo, 
taking  the  place  of  staves,  and  thus  forming  a part  of  the  circle 
with  the  staves,  was  i)laced  a 4x6  piece.  Through  the  projecting 
four  inches  of  this  4x6  at  proper  intervals  were  bored  holes 
tlirough  which  ends  of  the  hoops  were  j^assed.  The  hoops  were 
l^ent  to  the  curve  of  the  silo,  by  placing  the  rod  on  a curved  piece 
of  oak,  following  the  curve  of  foundation,  and  bending  to  a line 
of  curve  by  striking  with  the  back  of  a heavy  maul. 

The  erection  of  the  stave  silo  will  depend  somewhat  on  local 
conditions,  whether  in  a barn,  quite  near  it  on  the  outside,  as  at 
this  Station,  or  some  distance  away,  say  25  feet  or  more. 

The  following  is  the  method  by  which  this  silo  was  erected 
above  the  foundation,  and  the  doors  provided  for. 

We  first  placed  the  two  12  foot  4x6  pieces  in  position,  toe- 
nailing  lightly  the  end  resting  on  the  wooden  sill  on  the  wall 
and  bracing  the  upper  end  with  a board  nailed  to  a stake  in  the 


94 


Fig  5.  Stave  silo  of  William  Thorne. 


95 


ground.  Hoops  were  then  put  in  place,  being  supported  by  the 
4x6  pieces,  and  by  a stave  placed  half  way  between  them,  which 
was  held  to  the  hoops  by  a staple.  The  holes  in  the  4x6  varied 
in  distance  apart,  according  to  point  in  silo  depth.  The  bottom 
one  was  six  inches  from  foundation,  and  the  next  six  were  two 
and  one-half  feet  apart,  with  the  two  upper  spaces  under  the  top 
hoop,  three  feet  apart,  the  top  hoop  being  six  inches  from  the 
top.  The  staves  were  then  placed  in  position  on  the  lower  half 
of  silo,  16  feet  length  joining  the  4x6  pieces,  and  alternating  all 
around  with  a 112  foot  length.  One  half  of  the  lower  part  was 
first  put  together  and  the  hoops  tightened,  after  which  the  op- 
posite side  was  completed.  Each  stave  was  held  in  place  by  a 
wire  nail  driven  in  over  the  hoop  and  bent  over  as  a hook.  A 
good  wire  staple,  however,  is  better.  Before  putting  up  the  second 
tier  of  staves  make  a scaffolding  on  which  to  work,  as  directed  in 
the  construction  of  the  Wisconsin  silo  on  page  87.  The  16  feet 
4x6  pieces  were  then  placed  on  end  against  the  silo  with  the  upper 
end  resting  between  the  same  staves  as  the  12  feet  length  4x6’s 
A hoop  was  put  in  next  to  the  top  hole,  then  two  men  at  each 
timber  raised  them,  hoop  and  all  up  to  their  places.  A brace  with 
one  large  nail  at  each  end,  allowed  the  pieces  to  be  raised  with- 
out tipping  over.  The  bottom  hoop  for  the  top  half  was  then  put 
in  place  but  not  tightened.  The  staves  were  then  put  up  as  in  the 
first  half ; a ladder  being  leaned  against  the  hoop,  upon  which  a 
man  worked  at  the  top  line  of  the  silo.  A a matter  of  convenience 
the  strip  of  iron  was  placed  in  the  base  of  the  upper  stave,  and 
then  dropped  to  the  top  of  the  lower  stave  and  fitted  in  place. 

In  putting  in  the  upper  staves,  the  hoops  nearest  to  the  points 
where  the  staves  join  should  be  fairly  loose,  otherwise  the  upper 
staves  cannot  be  readily  crowded  in  place. 

After  the  staves  were  in  place,  and  the  four  hoops  were  drawn 
tight  enough  to  hold  securely,  the  remaining  hoops  were  put  on. 
One  man  stayed  on  the  inside  to  drive  back  any  stave  which  was 
too  far  in,  while  another  tightened  up  the  hoops. 

Four  doors  were  cut  by  sawing  four  staves  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees,  the  long  side  of  the  door  being  inside  the  silo.  In 


96 


constructing  the  silo,  when  the  place  was  reached  where  the  row 
of  doors  should  come,  one  stave  was  sawed  nearly  through  in  the 
right  place  for  each  door,  and  then  the  work  of  putting  in  staves 
continued.  A narrow  board  was  tacked  on  to  prevent  breaking 
this  stave  in  handling.  \Mien  ready  to  saw  out  the  door-s,  this 
board  may  be  removed,  and  as  many  staves  cut  as  desired,  for 
width  of  door. 

Late  in  the  season  after  the  silo  was  filled,  a roof  was  put  on 
which  is  rather  unique  in  itself.  This  consists  of  three  parts. 
First  two  2x6  pieces  were  laid  on  edge  across  the  top  and  center 
of  silo,  extending  north  and  south,  and  about  two  and  one  half 
feet  apart,  the  north  end  projecting  about  eight  inches,  the  south 
two  feet  beyond  the  staves.  These  were  nailed  to  the  staves.  The 
reason  for  the  two  foot  of  projection  is  to  hold  the  end  of  the 
carrier  while  filling.  Next,  two  more  2x6’s  were  placed  on  edge 
on  top  of  the  silo,  one  on  each  side  and  outside  of  the  previous 
2x6's,  the  ends  projecting  eight  inches  beyond  the  staves.  To 
these  two  pieces  were  butted  and  spiked  2x4  pieces,  which  served 
as  rafters,  extending  with  a slight  slope  from  the  upper  edge  of 
2x6  to  the  top  of  staves  and  equally  distributed  over  the  section 
of  silo  covered,  the  spaces  between  being  about  two  aiTd  a hall 
feet  apart.  Where  each  2x4  rested  on  a stave,  a notch  about  one 
inch  deep  w^as  cut.  These  two  frames  of  one  2x6  and  four  2x4*8 
were  then  covered  with  ordinary  roof  boarding,  and  each  2x6 
hinged  to  the  nailed  piece  along  side  of  it  and  hooked  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  silo  on  inside,  a board  cover  was  then  laid  over 
the  central  space,  the  boards  being  nailed  to  2x2  pieces  which 
dropped  down  on  each  side  to  the  outside  2x6  like  a trap  door  ar- 
rangement. The  section  was  also  hooked  to  the  central  2x6’s. 
A tinner  then  covered  each  section  with  tin  roofing,  which  was 
afterwards  painted  and  the  work  was  done.  This  roof  which  is 
almost  flat,  can  be  easily  removed  at  any  time  ,is  of  the  most 
convenient  type  when  filling,  and  is  a safe  place  to  work  on. 

This  stave  silo  without  a cement  floor,  cost  as  follows,  which 
represents  a greater  sum  than  would  be  necessary  to  spend  in 
many  localities. 


97 


COST  OF  STAVF  SITO. 


Lime  in  cement  in  foundation $ 5 00 

]\Iason  labor 3 60 

Staves  70  70 

Four  4x6’s  for  hoop  supports 5 20 

Ten  hoops 10  00 

Staples  and  nails 30 

Roof  (lumber  $5.00,  tin  $G.00) 11  00 

Labor,  two  men  for  four  days 10  00 


$115  89 

The  writer  would  call  attention  to  the  several  features  in 
stave  silo  construction  that  are  worthy  serious  consideration,  and 
if  thought  best,  adoption. 

Woven  wire  fencing  may  be  used  as  l)ands  to  hold  tlie  staves 
together,  in  place  of  iron  hoo|)s.  This  fencing  of  the  narrower 
width  and  of  any  good  standard  woven  pattern,  should  be  cut  so 
as  to  give  the  necessary  length  to  go  about  the  silo,  with  each 
end  securely  wound  and  fastened  al^out  4x4  pieces  the 
length  of  the  width  of  the  fencing.  Holes  should  l)e  bored 

througli  the  4x4,  suital)le  for  half-inch  or  larger  bolts.  When 
this  fencing  is  wound  about  the  silo,  the  sides  of  the  g'xg’s  should 
be  about  six  inches  or  more  apart.  The  bolts  arc  tlien  ])assed 
tlirougli  the  two  pieces  of  wood  with  washers  on  eacli  side,  and 
nuts  placed  thereon,  and  the  1)locks  of  wood  drawn  toward  each 
(Rher  and  the  staves  tightened  uj).  d'his  fencing  wire  can  easily 
be  adjusted  at  any  time.  At  Cornell  University  lilxi)eriment  Sta- 
tion the  writer  examined  a silo  constructed  on  this  t)lan,  and  it 
seemed  very  well  ])ut  together,  simple  and  inexpensive. 

In  reference  to  method  of  tightening,  King  in  discussing 
hoo])  for  the  stave  silo,  states  that  hvc-eighths  iron 

rods  in  about  16  foot  lengths  form  the  best  hoops.*  He 
recommends  long  threads  joined  with  iron  lugs  and  nuts. 
“The  iron  lugs  should  always  be  used  in  preference  to  the  2x4’s 


♦Physics  of  Agriculture,  19U1,  p.  422. 


98 


or  4x4’s  because  they  are  better  in  every  way.”  In  visiting  over 
loo  silos  in  1891,  he  found  that  the  heavy  timber  held  dampness 
and  caused  rotting  in  three  or  four  years,  which  will  not  be  the 
case  where  iron  lugs  are  used. 

When  the  door  of  the  stave  silo  is  put  in  ,just  at  filling  time, 
if  the  bevel  of  the  door  is  plastered  with  a thick  coat  of  puddled 
day,  and  the  door  forced  against  it,  air  will  be  excluded  more 
satisfactorily  than  where  the  clay  is  not  used.  A layer  of  tarred 
paper  between  door  joints  and  silage  is  also  recommended  There 
is  more  or  less  swelling  and  contracting  on  the  part  of  stave  silo 
that  must  be  carefully  watched.  In  summer  the  staves  shrink  in 
the  empty  silo,  and  the  hoops  must  be  kept  tightened,  or  staves 
may  fall  in.  After  the  silo  is  filled,  the  staves  swell  and  then 
the  hoops  need  loosening  to  provide  for  this  expansion.  To  as- 
sist in  keeping  the  staves  in  place  it  will  be  well  to  have  a shoulder 
in  the  foundation  wall  jut  into  the  silo  about  two  inches,  with  a 
similar  shoulder  on  the  outside.  This  is  really  equivalent  to 
drop])ing  the  staves  into  a loose  grove  where  there  will  be  rooni 
for  adjustment  for  shrinkage  and  swelling. 

Staves  used  in  silo  construction  are  prepared  in  various  ways. 
Some  are  simply  rough  sawed,  but  with  the  sides  true  in  width. 
Others  have  the  edges  beveled  slightly,  as  is  usual  in  tank  con- 
struction, while  others  use  tongue  and  grooved  staves,  made  with 
great  care.  The  writer  has  seen  silos  with  staves  prepared  in 
these  different  ways,  and  has  seen  superior  silage  in  the  roughest 
construction.  Yet  unquestionably  too  great  care  cannot  be  used 
in  selecting  material  and  m having  each  piece  uniformly  and  well 
made.  For  this  reason  tongue  and  grooved  material  will  be  as  a 
rule  most  satisfactory,  although  not  in  itself  essential  in  every  case 
to  sucessful  silage  making. 

Objection  to  Stave  Silos.  Considerable  criticism  has  been 
made  against  the  stave  silo,  notwithstanding,  its  extensive  use. 
King  calls  attention  to  the  objection  to  the  shrinking  and  swelling 
process  of  the  staves,*  and  the  movement  on  the  sills,  by  which 


♦Physics  of  Agriculture,  1901,  p.  420. 


99 


air  obtains  access  frequently  to  the  silage  and  says : “There  is  no 
reason  to  hope  that  good  silage  with  small  losses  in  dry  mat- 
ter can  be  made  in  the  stave  silos  which  are  not  carefully  con- 
structed of  good  lumber,  with  the  staves  both  bevelled,  and 
tongued  and  grooved.  It  is  really  more  difficult  to  make  a stave 
silo  air  tight  than  it  is  a tank  water  tight,  and  we  have  found  by 
careful  tests  that  the  unavoidable  losses  in  a new  stave  silo  next 
to  the  walls  were  as  high  as  23  to  28  per  cent.” 

Numerous  instances  have  occurred  with  stave  silos  located 
out  of  doors  being  moved  on  the  foundations,  or  partly  or  en- 
tirely blown  over.  One  very  extensive  farm  in  this  State  erected 
several  stave  silos,  25  feet  each  in  diameter.  They  were  made  of 
the  best  material  and  of  superior  workmanship,  but  it  was  finally 
found  absolutely  necessary  to  line  them  with  a layer  of  smooth, 
horizontal  sheeting  .to  keep  them  from  collapsing  when  empty, 
as  they  would  repeatedly  buckle  owing  to  the  pressure  of  wind 
against  the  slight  outward  curves  of  the  sides.  These  silos  were 
placed  on  good  foundations  and  were  stayed  by  guy  wires,  but 
the  diameter  was  too  great  for  the  type  of  silo.  Consequently, 
stave  silos  of  great  diameter  are  not  to  be  recommended.  Prob- 
ably 15  feet  is  a maximum  diameter,  two  small  deep  ones,  being 
more  desirable  than  one  large  one. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  writer,  the  modified  Wisconsin  silo 
is  preferable  to  the  stave  form.  The  expense  is  less,  the  con- 
struction is  easier,  more  rigid  and  durable,  there  is  no  cost  for 
hoops  or  bands,  and  the  silo  does  not  require  frequent  adjust- 
ment to  keep  in  satisfactory  condition.  Pro1)ably  no  form  of 
modern  wood  silo  will  give  more  satisfaction  than  the  one  first 
described  in  this  bulletin,  with  the  modified  form  the  next  best 
thing. 

The  Brick  or  Stone  Silo. 

The  early  silos  made  in  this  country  and  France  were  usually 
made  of  brick  or  stone,  with  the  walls  covered  with  cement  plaster. 
The  desire  for  something  cheaper  turned  Americans  into  the  con- 


lOO 


striiction  of  the  wooden  one,  until  the  silo  made  of  wood  became 
the  rule  and  not  the  exception. 

The  brick  or  stone  silo,  however,  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
permanent  of  construction  and  should  give  satisfactory  preser- 
vation of  silage.  If  one  has  the  money  to  spart,  and  stone  or 
brick  are  conveniently  at  hand,  then  such  a silo  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

In  constructing  a brick  silo,  it  will  be  well  to  guard  the 
following  points.  Make  the  foundation  of  stone  if  practicable, 
and  let  the  first  course  of  brick  come  flush  on  the  inside  with  the 
stone  work.  Bed  a five-eighths  inch  iron  hoop  in  the  stone  work 
in  the  upper  part  before  laying  the  brick,  in  order  to  keep  the 
pressure  of  brick  from  spreading  the  wall  before  the  mortar  be- 
comes set  and  hard.  Make  a two  inch  air  space  in  the  walls  up 
to  within  one  third  of  the  top.  This  will  make  a i>4  inch  wall  of 
three  courses  of  brick.  If  however,  the  silo  is  to  be  over  24 
feet  inside  diameter,  then  a four  brick  wall  is  really  necessary  one- 
third  the  way  up,  then  the  next  third  of  three  bricks  and  the  last 
third  of  two  bricks.  The  air  space  should  be  in  the  outer  part  of 
the  wall.  Iron  tie  rods  should  also  be  laid  around  in  the  wall  be- 
tween the  doors,  as  recommended  in  the  stone  work.  It  is  also 
important  that  the  brick  shall  be  wet  when  laid;  otherwise  the 
mortar  in  which  they  are  laid  will  be  dried  out  too  rapidly.  The 
walls  should  be  plastered  over  very  smoothly  with  a coat  of  rich 
cement,  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  thick,  and  then  every  two  or 
three  years  this  should  be  well  whitewashed  with  thin  cement  to 
keep  the  wall  protected  from  the  effects  of  the  acid  in  the  silage. 
King  recommeuds  that  the  floor  jambs  be  made  of  3x6’s  or  3x8'’s, 
rabbetted  two  inches  deep  to  receive  the  door  on  the  inside.  The 
center  of  the  jambs  outside  should  be  grooved  and  a tongue  in- 
serted projecting  three-fourths  of  an  inch  outward  to  set  back  into 
the  mortar  and  thus  secure  a thoroughly  air-tight  joint  between 
wall  and  jamb.  The  doors  may  be  made  of  two  layers  of  matched 
flooring  with  tarred  paper  between,  and  lag  screw  bolted  to  the 
jamb  so  as  to  give  a perfectly  smooth  face  next  to  the  silage. 


101 


The  stone  silo  should  have  a wall  about  two  feet  thick  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  this  may  be  laid  in  the  cheaper 
grades  of  cement.  Above  the  surface  a good  grade  of  Portland 
cement  should  be  used.  A thickness  of  wall  of  i'8  inches  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  is  desirable  but  this  may  be  gradually  re- 
duced to  12  inches  at  the  top,  keeping  the  inner  surface  of  the  silo 
perpendicular.  It  is  important  to  have  five-eighths  inch  iron 
rods,  with  angles  on  the  ends,  laid  in  the  wall  at  intervals  be- 
tween each  door,  to  keep  the  wall  from  cracking  or  spreading  be- 
fore the  mortar  or  cement  is  thoroughly  set.  These  rods  may  be 
of  several  lengths,  laid  to  the  curve  of  the  wall,  and  the  angled 
ends  should  lap  by  each  other  for  three  or  four  inches. 

Mr.  Samuel  Smith  of  Cass  Co.,  in  1901  constructed  a round 
stone  silo  30  feet  deep  and  14  feet  inside  diameter.  The  stone  is 
12  feet  below  the  ground  on  a hillside,  and  18  feet  above,  and  is 
laid  in  Portland  cement.  The  stone  is  pointed  on  the  outside  and 
is  plastered  on  the  inside  with  cement.  He  states  that  No.  i 
quarry  stone  was  used  and  “any  stones  large  enough  to  reach 
both  sides  of  the  silo  wall,  were  broken  so  that  the  weather 
would  not  have  a direct  conductor  inside  and  I never  have  had 
one  bit  of  silage  frozen.”  He  used  4x4  pieces,  four  feet  long,  set 
into  the  wall  at  top  and  projecting  five  inches  above,  to  which 
the  roof  was  anchored..  A skeleton  frame  of  2x4's  covered  with 
shingled  sheeting  forms  the  roof. 

It  will  be  well  to  place  silos  below  the  surface  a distance. 
This  should  not  be  deep  enough  on  level  land  however,  to  require 
great  exertion  to  get  out  the  silage.  Under  such  circumstances, 
four  feet  is  deep  enough. 

Cement  or  Grout  Silos. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  use  of  cement  silos  has  been 
adopted  in  Canada,  especially  in  Huron  and.  Perth  countries. 
Valuable  information  on  this  subject  has  been  contributed  to  the 
Farmers*  Advocate,  of  London  Ontario,  Canada,  by  users  of 
cement  silos,  from  which  the  following  notes  are  abstracted. 


102 


The  foundation  should  be  sunk  in  the  ground  some  distance, 
and  the  wall  rest  on  a hard  bottom.  One  person  states  that  he 
dug  a trench  two  feet  deep  to  hard  bottom,  and  then  filled  it  with 
cement  and  large  stones,  having  a wall  i8  inches  wide  and  two 
feet  high.  The  walls  are  erected  above  ground  by  the  aid  of 
‘‘cribs.” 

“We  have  a double  set  of  cribs.  Each  crib  is  i8  inches  deep, 
and  in  four  sections,  the  inside  crib  hinged  in  three  places  and 
tightened  at  the  fourth  with  a clamp.  The  outside  one  is  bolted 
together,  and  two  one  inch  washers  taken  off  every  time  you 
raise  the  crib,  so  as  to  get  the  right  taper  on  the  outside  of  the 
wall.  There  is  a rim  around  the  top  side  of  each  crib,  one  fitted 
into  the  other,  so  that  they  cannot  get  out  of  shape.  We  stand 
eight  poles  around  die  outside  of  the  silo,  and  tie  poles  across 
these,  and  then  lay  planks  across  the  corners,  and  that  makes  a 
good  scaffold,  on  which  you  can  wheel  the  cement  around  in  a 
wheelbarrow  and  shovel  it  into  the  wall.  We  use  twO'  wheel- 
barrows, one  getting  filled  while  we  empty  the  other.  We  draw 
all  the  cement  up  with  a horse  and  swing  pole. 

In  mixing  cement  and  gravel,  we  use  from  one  to  nine  to  one 
to  twelve,  according  to  the  quality  of  gravel.” 

For  plastering  the  inside  the  best  quality  of  clean  gritty  sand 
and  Portland  cement  is  necessary,  one  part  cement  and  two  parts 
sand  which  has  been  well  sifted. 

The  walls  arc  usually  thicker  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top. 
A foot  wall  of  i8  inches  and  top  of  nine  inches  will  no  doubt 
prove  satisfactory.  Wdiile  stay  rods  are  not  placed  in  all  cement 
silos,  they  prevent  the  cracking  of  the  walls  during  the  process 
of  drying.  It  is  important  that  a silo  of  this  type  be  built  early 
in  the  summer  and  the  walls  kept  frequently  sprinkled  so  as  to  not 
permit  them  to  dry  too  rapidly.  There  should  be  several  weeks 
for  the  wall  to  set  in. 

The  cost  of  such,  a silo  as  this  varies  as  might  be  expected. 
One  man  gives  the  total  cost  of  a silo  28  feet  high  and  iij  feet 
in  diameter  inside  at  $110.90,  which  includes  labor  and  board. 


103 


The  cost  given  by  another  for  a silo  of  about  this  same  size  and 
capacity  was  $iio.oo.  Still  another  gives  the  cost  of  a silo  30 
feet  high  with  inside  diameter  of  14  feet  at  $162.50,  including 
$15.00  for  a roof.  These  silos  quite  generally  give  satisfaction. 

Capacity  of  a Round  Silo 

The  following  table  is  adapted  from  bulletin  59  of  the  Wis- 
consin Station,  by  King,  using  round  figures  mainly,  instead  of 
decimals. 

The  Approximate  Capacity  in  tons  of  Round  Silos 
for  well  matured  Corn  Silage. 


Depth  of 
Silo  In 

INSIDE  diami:ter  ok  silo,  ; 

IN  FEET. 

feet 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

2^  21  1 22  1 

23 

24 

25 

26  1 

20 

58% 

67 

751/2 

84% 

941/2 

104i/2iil5%ll26i/2 

1138% 

150% 

163% 

176%  1 

21 

63 

711/2 

80% 

901/2 

101 

Ill%|l23%ll35% 

|148 

161 

174% 

189 

22 

671/4 

761/2 

86 1/2 

96% 

108 

119 1/2  il  31%  1144% 

1158 

172% 

18634 

202  1 

23 

71% 

81V2 

92 

103% 

115 

1271/2  il40%!l54% 

16834 

183% 

199% 

215%  i 

24 

76 

861/2 

97% 

1091/2 

122 

135%  149%  1 163% 

179 

195 

211% 

22834  1 

25  ' 

i 8O1/2 

89% 

1031/2 

116 

129% 

143%  1158  11731/2 

189% 

206% 

224 

242%  1 

2G 

8514 

97% 

109% 

123 

137 

152  11  671/2 1183% 

201 

21834 

237% 

256%  j 

27 

90% 

1021/2 

115% 

129% 

144% 

100%  1 176  34!  194 

212 

230% 

250% 

271 

28 

95 

1108 

122 

1ZQ% 

1521/2 

169  1861a  [204% 

223% 

243% 

264 

285% 

29 

100 

!113% 

128% 

144 

160% 

1771/2  195341215 

235 

25534 

277% 

300% 

30 

105 

11191/2 

134% 

151 

I681/2 

1861/2  20534122534 

246% 

26834 

291% 

315% 

31 

110 

125 

141 

158 

176% 

195%|21534!23G%I258% 

28134 

305 

330 

LJ^ 

115 

|l36 

147% 

165% 

1841/2 

204%  12251/2 1247% 

1270% 

294% 

319% 

345% 

This  table  should  be  of  considerable  service  to  persons  con- 
templating building.  One  may  readily  ascertain  his  own  silo 
needs,  by  figuring  on  the  amount  his  stock  will  consume 
per  day  during  the  non-pasturing  or  soiling  season,  or  say  180 
days.  One  mature  cow  will  consume  to  advantage  from  25  to  50 
pounds  per  day,  depending  on  size  and  conditions.  A beef  animal 
should  not  be  fed  quite  so  heavily  as  a dairy  cow,  and  50  pounds 
is  an  ample  feed  for  a heavy  milker,  for  all  cattle  should  also  be 
fed  hay  as  well  as  silage. 


104 


Should  a Silo  Have  a Roof? 

Should  a silo  have  a roof  is  an  important  question.  At  the 
present  time  many  consider  the  roof  quite  indispensable,  but 
there  are  numerous  silos  to-day  located  outside  the  barn,  without 
a roof  over  them.  While  a roof  may  perhaps  not  be  considered 
a necessity,  it  is  a convenience,  and  has  its  advantages.  In  re- 
gions of  considerable  snow  and  rain,  silage  free  from  snow  and 
uniform  in  its  moisture  is  preferable  to  that  which  is  receiving 
large  washings  of  water  or  is  more  or  less  covered  with  snow  at 
frequent  intervals.  A silo,  however,  without  a roof  is  filled  to  its 
top  more  conveniently  than  where  the  roof  is  on,  and  occasion 
will  also  happen  when  the  rain  water  will  be  a desirable  addition 
to  the  silage.  The  roof  however,  during  the  warmer  months  of 
the  year,  if  silage  be  used,  should  protect  the  silage  from  drying 
out  too  rapidly  and  will  also  keep  the  walls  of  a wooden  structure 
in  better  shape  than  when  exposed  to  sunshine  to  such  a degree 
as  to  pronif  te  rapid  shrinkage  or  drying  cut. 

Estimating  Material  and  Cost  of  Silos. 

The  cost  of  material  for  constructing  a silo  varies  greatly  ac- 
cording to  location.  Timber  is  cheaper  in  northern  or  southern 
Indiana  than  in  Central  Indiana  or  the  prairie  region.  Conse- 
quently no  figures  of  cost  for  construction  will  be  given  in  detail, 
for  persons  to  base  their  estimates  on.  Instead,  bills  of  material 
are  herewith  given,  with  spaces  in  which  one  may  write  the  cost 
of  the  same  as  obtained  in  his  neighborhood  by  which  he  may  ap- 
proximate the  cost  of  a silo  of  moderate  size.  These  estimates 
are  made  for  silos  built  in  the  open  on  level  land.  On  hillsides 
deeper  walls  may  be  made  to  advantage  and  where  the  silo  is  lo- 
cated wdthin  a building,  no  roof  will  be  needed.  Consequently 
various  factors  may  alter  the  application  of  these  estimates, 
which  are  only  offered  as  suggestive,  with  the  hope  they  may 
prove  helpful. 


105 


ESTIMATE  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  WISCONSIN  IMPROVED  SIEO. 

Si2e  30  feet  deep,  M feet  diameter.  Capacity  90  tons. 

Cost 

Brick — 3375  for  foundation,  1 foot  thick,  3 feet  deep 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4 — 16ft.  long 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4 — 14  ft  long 

Flooring  for  doors — 32  ft  4 matched 

Sheeting — 3,000  ft  half  inch  resawed  from  2x6 — 16  ft.  plank 
sawed  three  times,  dressed  one  side  to  uniform  thick- 
ness for  inside  lining  of  two  layers 

Lining — 1,500  feet  of  same  for  outside 

Tar  building  paper — 200  yards  water  and  acid  proof 

Nails — 200  lbs.  8 penny 

Spikes — 20  lbs 

Rafters — 22  12x4 — 10  ft.  long.  For  usual  ridge  roof 

Sheeting  for  roof — 350  feet  of  16  ft  boards 

Shingles — 3,000 

Shingle  nails — 12  lbs  

Dormer  window  for  filling  through 

Paint — 7 gallons  providing  two  coats 

Cement — 2 bbls.  cementing  bottom 

Total  Cost 


ESTIMATE  OF  MATERTAD  FOR  MODIFIED  WISCONSIN  SIEO. 
Same  capacity  as  preceding. 


Cost 


Brick — 350  for  foundation,  8 in.  wide,  5 in.  thick 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4,  16ft  long 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4,  14ft  long 

Sheeting — 3,000  ft.  half-inch,  resawed  from  2x6,  16ft  plank 
sawed  three  times,  dressed  to  uniform  thickness  for  in- 
side lining  of  two  layers 

Tar  Building  Paper — 200  yards  water  and  acid  proof 

Nails — 150  lbs.  8 penny .• 

Spikes — 12  lbs 

Total  Cost 

No  outer  siding,  roof  or  floor  is  figured  on  or  provided  for  in  this 
construction. 


estimate  of  MATERIAL  FOR  STAVE  SIEO. 
Size  12x28  feet.  Capacity  60  tons. 

Brick — 1,800  for  foundation,  1ft  thick  2ft  deep 

Staves — 77,  2x6,  16ft.  dressed  4 sides 


Cost 


io6 

Staves — 77,  2x6,  12ft.  dressed  4 sides.. 

Rods — 10,  19V2  ft.  long  of  V2  inch  iron,  with  5-8  threaded 

ends  and  nuts 

Staples — 2 gross  i/^x2  inch 

Iron  Tighteners — 20  holding  ends  of  hoops 

Rafters — 2,  2x6  pieces,  14  ft.  long  for  roof  center 

Rafters — 2,  2x6  pieces,  13ft.  long  for  roof,  next  center.... 

Side  rafters — 48  ft.  2x4  pieces 

Roof  sheeting — 170  ft.  common 

Tin  sheeting — 196  ft 

Cement  for  floor,  2bbls 

Total  Cost 


Location  of  Silos  in  Indiana. 

Silos  are  found  most  abundant  in  the  more  distinctively  dairy 
sections  of  the  State,  and  especially  about  the  larger  cities  and  in 
the  counties  where  creameries  are  common.  South  of  Indian- 
apolis but  comparatively  few  silos  occur.  Lake,  Porter,  Allen, 
IMarion,  Henry,  Wayne  and  Union  counties  probably  represent 
the  best  silo  districts  in  Indiana.  Persons  wishing  to  inspect 
silos  before  building,  will  fmd  good  specimens  of  round  ones  at 
the  following  addresses,  which  represent  a wide  distribution  over 
rhe  vState.  You  should  enclose  a stamp  for  reply  if  you  write  an} 
of  the  following  addresses  : 


Wisconsin  round  form Y/.  L.  Thompson,  Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Stave J.  J.  W.  Billingsley,  Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Wisconsin  modified E.  W.  Gove,  LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

^yisconsin  modified  and  stave... 

Experiment  Station,  I.aFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

Stave C.  T.  Mattingly,  Plymouth,  Marshall  Co. 

Stave *. J.  M.  Hack,  Crown  Point,  Lake  Co. 

Stone Samuel  Smith,  I.ogansport,  Cass  Co. 

Stave T.  E.  Ellison,  Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Wisconsin School  Feeble  Minded  Youth,  Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Stave T.  C.  Burnside,  Liberty,  Union  Co. 

Stave Call  Hiisselman,  Auburn,  DeKalb  Co. 

Stave,  sheeted American  Farm  Co.,  Morocco,  Newton  Co. 

Round,  plastered. . .E.  F.  Hanning,  Evansville,  R.  R.  3,  Vanderburg  Co. 

Stave J.  W.  Griffiths,  Dunreith,  Henry  Co. 

Stave William  Thorne,  Huntington,  Henry  Co. 


The  word  Silage  is  considered  a preferable  word  to  Ensilage. 


Purdue  University. 

Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

C.  S.  PLUMB,  Director. 

LaFayette,  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  92,  Vol.  XI,  April,  1902. 


Fertilizer  Tests  on  Tomatoes. 

BY  H.  A.  HUSTON. 

At  many  points  in  central  Indiana  are  large  establishments 
for  canning  vegetables.  One  of  the  most  important  products  of 
these  factories  is  canned  tomatoes.  There  are  six  states  in  which 
large  quantities  of  tomatoes  are  canned  and  among  these,  Indiana 
stands  second.  For  the  past  five  years,  1897  to  1901,  Maryland 
packed  an  average  of  1,840,000  cases;  Indiana,  697,200 ;New  Jer- 
sey, 685^,400;  California,  473,200;  Delaware,  360,000  and  Ohio, 
190,200.  A case  contains  24  cans  holding  three  pounds  each. 
The  amount  packed  each  year  varies  greatly;  thus  the  cases 
packed  in  each  of  the  six  states  for  five  years  were  as  follows : 


STATE. 

I 1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901  j 

Maryland  

i 

. .|  1382000 

1919000 

2840000 

13G8000 

1G91000  ! 

Indiana  

. . 1 588000 

1020000 

828000 

G30000 

420000 

New  Jersey 

. . ; 520000 

810000 

871000 

815000 

411000 

California  

. . 30GOOO 

300000 

508000 

556000 

69G000 

Delaware  

. . 1 209000 

450000 

547000 

381000 

213000 

Ohio  

. .|  153000 

211000 

249000 

234000 

104000 

These  statistics  are  furnished  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  W. 
A.  Sampson,  vSecretary  of  the  Indiana  Canners’  Association.  One 
bushel  of  tomatoes  will  make  14  cans  of  three  pounds  each,  or 
one  case  of  tomatoes  rej)resents  1-7^5  bushel  of  tomatoes,  so 
that  Indiana  ])roduces  on  the  average  1,200,000  bushels  of  toma- 
toes each  year  for  which  farmers  receive  about  $240,000. 

The  above  table  is  published  mainly  for  the  purpose  of 
f.alHng  attention  to  the  very  great  variation  in  the  crop  from 


io8 


year  to  year.  With  our  grain  and  corn  crops,  the  amount  of 
rainfall  during  the  growing  season  is  the  main  factor  in  de- 
termining the  amount  of  the  crop.  The  rainfall  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  determining  the  yield  of  tomatoes,  but  in  addition 
to  this  a late  spring  or  an  early  frost  in  the  autumn  may  diminish 
the  crop  fully  one  half.  The  crop  is  also  subject  to  fungus 
diseases  which  are  more  apt  to  result  in  serious  damage  when  sev- 
eral successive  tomato  crops  are  grown  on  the  same  land. 

Most  of  the  work  published  on  the  subject  of  tomato  raising 
relates  to  the  early  market  crop.  For  this  reason  many  of  the  sug- 
gestions offered  are  not  applicable  to  the  crop  for  canneries. 

In  raising  tomatoes  for  canneries,  the  grower,  first  of  all 
seeks  a large  yield.  Barly  maturity  is  of  less  importance  since  he 
contracts  to  sell  the  whole  crop  at  a fixed  price.  This  fact  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  selecting  the  variety  of  tomato 
to  be  raised,  the  soil,  and  the  kind  of  fertilization.  In  Indiana  the 
usual  practice  is  for  the  canneries  to  furnish  the  plants  so  that 
the  grower  has  only  to  deal  with  the  selection  of  the  soil,  the  fer- 
tilization, the  cultivation,  and  harvesting  of  the  crop. 

The  Soil. 

For  tomatoes  for  canneries  a much  heavier  soil  and  one  of 
higher  natural  fertility  may  be  used  than  is  recommended  for  to^ 
inatoes  for  the  early  market.  In  Indiana  the  growing  season  in  the 
field  is  in  an  average  year  from  May  i'5  to  September  15.  In  very 
favorable  seasons  the  growing  season  may  extend  a month  longer. 
Hence,  there  is  ample  time  for  the  plant  to  utilize  the  food  in- 
gredients present  in  the  soil,  provided  the  water  supply  is  uni- 
form enough  throughout  the  season.  During  many  seasons  the 
rainfall  is  low  in  July  and  August,  and  the  growth  of  the  plants 
is  checked.  This  may  be  provided  against  in  some  measure  by 
deep  plowing  of  the  land.  This  is  best  done  in  the  fall ; if  fall 
plowing  is  impracticable  the  land  should  be  plowed  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  store  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
water  of  the  spring  rains.  After  a thorough  preparation  of  the 
land  for  setting  out  the  plants,  a thin  layer  of  fine  earth  main- 


109 

tained  on  the  surface  by  shallow  cultivation  will  render  great  ser- 
vice in  saving  the  water  supply.  Lands  which  have  had  green 
crops  turned  under  or  to  which  applications  of  barnyard  manure 
have  been  made  will  have  their  water  holding  capacity  increased 
and  will  also  retain  the  water  better.  Where  barnyard  manure  is 
used  on  tomato  land  it  is  advisable  to  apply  it  in  the  fall  and  work 
it  well  into  the  soil  at  that  time. 

While  it  is  rather  more  difficult  to  cultivate  tomatoes  on 
heavier  lands  it  is  the  experience  of  catsup  makers  that  on  these 
lands  a tomato  of  superior  cpiality  is  produced  in  that  the  relative 
cpiantity  of  pulp  in  the  tomato  is  increased.  For  heavy  yield  it 
is  essential  that  strong  land  or  heavy  fertilization  be  used.  The 
crop  for  the  cannery  is  one  for  which  a relatively  low  price  is 
obtained  and  hence  the  cost  of  fertilization  has  to  be  carefully 
considered.  While  it  is  true  that  on  many  of  the  soils  of  central 
Indiana  a remunerative  crop  may  be  produced  without  fertiliza- 
tion, it  is  also  true  that  on  nearly  all  of  these  soils  additional  fer- 
tilization may  be  prohtable. 

The  tomato  plant  is  a gross  feeder  and  requires  an  abundant 
supply  of  potash.  Voorhees*  estimates  that  lo  tons  of  fruit  with 
the  accompanying  vines  would  contain  57  pounds  of  nitrogen,  16 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  94  pounds  of  potash.  While  the 
composition  of  the  crop  does  not  indicate  tlie  quantities  of  each 
fertilizer  ingredient  that  can  be  most  profital.dy  used,  it  is  useful 
when  considered  in  connection  with  the  known  qualities  of  the 
soil. 

There  is  no  question  that  in  Indiana  soils  that  contain  con- 
siderable clay,  phosphoric  acid  is  relatively  low  and  that  for  crops 
like  corn  and  vegetables  the  application  of  potash  is  also  needed 
to  produce  the  most  profitable  crops.  These  needs  are  greater 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  years  that  the  land  has  been  under 
cultivation.  The  nitrogen  supply  is  more  variable,  but  on  lands 
where  a rotation  with  clover  has  been  used,  the  nitrogen  sup[)ly  is 


♦Fertilizer,  p.  233. 


no 


probably  considerable  higher  than  on  the  eastern  lands  devoted  to 
the  late  tomato  crop. 

As  a rule,  the  canneries  in  Indiana  are  located  in  sections  of 
the  state  where  very  little  fertilizer  is  used  on  any  crop  and  where 
farmers  have  never  given  any  attention  to  the  subject  of  commer- 
cial manures. 

The  manufacturers  of  fertilizers  for  use  in  Indiana  have  not 
oflered  goods  especially  prepared  for  tomatoes  because  of  a lack 
of  demand  and  from  a lack  of  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of 
our  soils.  During  the  past  few  years  both  growers  and  canners 
have  occasionally  asked  for  advice  and  assistance  in  regard  to 
fertilizers  to  be  used  on  tomatoes.  As  the  fertilizers  in  our 
market  were  not  of  the  composition  found  most  useful  for  late 
tomatoes,  in  other  sections  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  undertake 
some  experimental  work  on  the  subject. 

Fertilizer  E,xperiments  on  Tomatoes. 

In  the  spring  of  1899,  I met  a large  number  of  tomato  grow- 
ers at  Franklin,  Indiana  and  later  arranged  to  conduct  tests  on 
four  farms  at  Franklin  and  Greenwood.  The  formula  used  was 
based  on  that  recommended  by  Voorhees  for  late  tomatoes*,  but 
instead  of  using  bone  tankage  we  used  azotin  and  acid  phosphate 
in  proper  amounts,  since  it  was  desirable  to  have  plants  to  which 
no  phosphoric  acid  was  applied. 

Voohees’  formula  calls  for  a fertilizer  containing: 

Nitrogen  4.7  per  cent. 

Prosphoric  acid 7.2  per  cent. 

Potash  12.5  per  cent. 

It  is  the  intention  to  have  part  of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 

acid  immediately  available,  and  a part  of  each  available  during  the 
maturing  period.  With  this  purpose  in  view  the  goods  are 


made  of 

Nitrate  of  soda 400  pounds 

Bone  tankage 700  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 400  pounds 

Muriate  of  potash 500  pounds 


The  bone  tankage  is  a product  often  called  butchers’  tankage,  and 


♦Voorhees;  Fertilizers,  p.  233. 


Ill 


contains  about  five  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  1 1 per  cent  of  phos  • 
phoric  acid.  The  other  materials  are  all  well  known  and  readiU 
obtained  in  the  Indiana  markets. 

It  is  recommended  to  use  500  pounds  of  this  mixture  to  the 
acre,  and  our  experiments  were  based  on  this  amount. 

The  materials  for  one  ton  of  this  mixture  could  be  purchased 
at  retail  for  about  $32.00,  making  the  cost  per  acre  $8.00. 

The  system  adopted  in  planning  these  tests  was  the  usual  one 
for  field  testing  of  soils.  The  plats  were  one  twentieth  of  an  acre 
each,  and  some  extra  plats  were  used  for  special  purposes.  The 
only  farm  on  which  the  work  was  completed  was  that  of  Mr. 
Charles  Keay  of  Franklin.  Mr.  Keay  continued  the  work  for  two 
years  and  his  reports  are  complete  in  every  detail,  and  give  evi- 
dence of  most  careful  work.  Mr.  Ktay’s  land  originally  had  a 
good  deal  of  beach  timber  on  it ; it  is  a moderately  heavy  clay 
loam  in  good  mechanical  condition,  has  been  cleared  30  years, 
was  never  manured,  and  in  a fair  season  will  raise  24  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  or  50  bushels  of  corn. 

At  the  rate  of  setting  plants  on  this  farm,  there  were  2240 
tomato  plants  to  the  acre  or  112  plants  in  each  plat.  The  plats 
were  arranged  to  consist  of  four  rows  of  28  plants  each,  and  be- 
tween each  plat  two  rows  were  left  to  which  no  fertilizer  was  ap- 
plied. The  following  a])plications  were  made  to  the  plats : 


Plat 

No. 

1.... 

No  fertilizer. 

Plat 

No. 

2.... 

121/2 

lbs. 

Nitrate  of  soda 

10 

lbs. 

Azotin  

6 

lbs. 

Acid  phosphate 

10 

lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

3.... 

61/4 

lbs. 

Nitrate  of  soda 

5 

lbs. 

Azotin  

3 

lbs. 

Acid  phosphate 

5 

lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

4.... 

121/2 

lbs. 

Acid  prosphate 

10 

lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

5.... 

Plat 

No. 

6.... 

....Muriate  of  potash 

I2V2 

lbs. 

Nitrate  of  soda 

10 

lbs. 

Azotin  

6 

lbs. 

112 


Plat 

No. 

7.... 

....Nitrate  of  soda... 

10  lbs. 

Azotin  

6 lbs. 

Acid  phosphate... 

10  lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

8.... 

Nitrate  of  soda... 

10  lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

9.... 

Azotin  

13  lbs. 

Plat 

No. 

10.... 

Plat 

No. 

11.... 

in  1900  only. 

The  fertilizers  were  prepared  at  the  Station,  and  the  quantity 
for  each  plant  was  put  in  a small  paper  sack.  In  1899  the  plants 
were  set  May  19,  and  in  1900  they  were  set  May  18. 

The  fertilizer  was  well  mixed  with  the  soil  about  the  plant  at 
the  time  of  setting-.  Plat  3 to  which  only  one  half  the  amount  of 
fertilizer  was  added  was  included  to  get  a little  light  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  amount  of  fertilizer  necessary.  Plat  8,  on  which  ni- 
trate alone  was  used,  was  introduced  because  in  the  eastern 
states  nitrate  alone  has  often  proved  very  profitable,  and  Plat 
9 was  introduced  to  compare  organic  nitrogen  with  nitrate. 

Plat  II  was  introduced  in  1900  by  Mr.  Keay  to  observ^e  the  ef- 
fect of  barnyard  manure.  Part  of  the  manure  was  applied  to 
clover  sod  in  the  spring  of  1899,  and  the  land  plowed  in  the 
spring  of  1900,  and  top  dressed  with  manure.  Mr.  Keay  esti- 
mates that  the  manure  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  V2  to  15  two 
horse  loads  (35  bushel  wagon  bed)  per  acre. 

In  tables  i and  2 are  Mr.  Keay’s  records  for  each  year.  They 
are  given  in  detail  in  order  to  show  not  only  the  total  gain  bur 
also  the  gain  at  each  picking,  since  it  seldom  happens  that  all  the 
tomatoes  are  harvested  before  the  vines  are  killed  by  the  frost  and 
it  is  a matter  of  much  importance  to  learn  if  the  fertilizer  aids  in 
increasing  the  relative  amounts  on  the  early  pickings 

The  results  on  plats  2 and  3 in  both  seasons  show  the  desir- 
ability of  using  a complete  fertilizer  on  lands  of  this  kind,  and  that 
it  is  desirable  to  use  it  in  liberal  amounts.  The  increased  yield 
on  plat  2 over  that  on  plat  3 is  much  more  than  enough  to  pay 
for  the  increased  cost  of  the  fertilizer.  The  use  of  nitrogen  alone 
was  unprofitable  either  in  the  form  of  nitrate  or  in  the  form  of 
organic  nitrogen.  It  is  probable  that  on  lands  of  this  type  where 


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TABLE  II.  YIELDS  IN  1900  ON  KEAY  FARM. 


>5 


clover  is  used  in  rotation,  a fertilizer  containing  nitrogen  three 
per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid,  seven  per  cent,  .and  potash 
twelve  per  cent  would  be  nearly  as  serviceable  as  one  containing 
five  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  the  cost  of  fertilizer  could  be  reduced 
about  $5.00  per  ton.  If  growth  was  not  vigorous  enough,  50  to 
100  pounds  of  nitrate  could  be  applied  early  in  July.  The  remark- 
able result  on  plat  7 in  1900  is  probably  due  to  some  peculiarity  of 
the  soil  on  this  plat.  At  the  time  the  plats  were  laid  out,  it  was 
noticed  that  the  appearance  of  a part  of  this  plat  was  quite 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  land.  The  remarkable  results  of  the 
use  of  manure  on  plat  1 1 are  of  much  interest  as  indicating  what 
may  be  accomplished  on  soils  that  have  received  no  manure  for 
30  years. 

Neither  season  was  very  favorable  to  tomato  growing,  and 
the  yields  are  below  the  average. 

Mr.  Keay  especially  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  on  the  fer- 
tilized plats  there  was  not  only  a great  increase  of  yield  but  that 
many  more  tomatoes  ripened  early  in  the  season,  a matter  of 
much  importance  in  years  when  early  frost  occurs.  This  early 
ripening  did  not  occur  on  the  manured  plat. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  certainly  indicate  that  there 
is  a field  for  the  profitable  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  to- 
mato growing  on  lands  such  as  were  used.  In  1899  the  ex- 
periments were  duplicated  on  the  Station  farm  with  the  result  tha/ 
the  use  of  fertilizers  gave  very  little  increase  in  yield*.  The  yields 
were  large,  12  tons  per  acre.  The  Station  farm  is  second  bottom 
land  and  experiments  in  the  past  show  that  it  does  not  re- 
spond to  the  use  of  fertilizers  on  vegetables. 

The  formula  given  for  compounding  the  fertilizer  uses  muri- 
ate of  potash.  Some  experiments  on  early  tomatoes  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  the  sulfate  of  potash  gives  tomatoes  of  better  quality.  If 
one  wishes  to  secure  better  (piality  as  well  as  an  increased  yield 
it  would  probably  be  better  to  s])ecify  potash  derived  from  sulfate. 
All  properly  made  tobacco  fertilizers  contain  the  sulfate  and  the 
material  is  readily  obtained.  The  same  fjuantity  should  be  used  as 
i.s  given  for  muriate. 

Asth  annual  report,  p.  dS. 


Purdue  University. 

Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

C.  S.  PLUMB,  Director. 

LaFayette,  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  93,  Vol.  XI,  June,  1902. 


The  Influence  of  Condimerital  Stock  Food  in  Fatten- 
ing Swine, 

BY  C.  S.  PLUMB. 

For  years  American  stockmen  have  fed  to  a more  or  less  ex- 
tent what  are  g-enerally  regarded  as  conditional  stock  foods.  The 
foods  often  contain  considerable  oil  meal,  some  fenugreek,  which 
gives  it  a pleasant  ordor,  ground  ginger,  gentian,  etc.  These 
foods  are  more  especially  used  by  owners  of  horses  and  cattle, 
and  perhaps  have  been  comparatively  little  used  by  pig  feeders. 

So  far  as  I am  aware,  foods  of  this  class  have  not  been  fcrl 
swine  at  our  Experiment  Stations,  excepting  in  a very  small  way, 
and  no  definite  information  has  been  available  as  to  the  merits  of 
such  food  fed  swine. 

To  get  some  data  on  the  subject,  eight  pigs  were  selected 
and  the  following  experiment  was  begun  on  October  16,  iBqq, 
under  the  charge  of  Mr.  H.  E.  VanNorman,  assistant  to  the 
writer. 

The  oniwals  used  consisted  of  six  Poland  China  sows,  far 
rowed  on  June  22,  1899,  and  two  Chester  White  sows  farroweif 
on  Tunc  10,  1899.  They  were  divided  into  two  groups,  so  as  to 


Il8 

bring  three  Poland  Chinas  and  one  Chester  White  in  each  group, 
as  follows : 

Nos.  257,  258  and  260  in  Lot  I,  and  Nos.  254,  256  and  259  in 
Lot  II  are  Poland  Chinas,  and  No.  265  in  Lot  I and  No.  264  in 
Lot  II  are  Chester  Whites.  On  October  16  the  four  pigs  in  Lot 
I weighed  260  pounds  or  65  pounds  each,  while  those  in  Lot  II 
weighed  257  pounds  or  64  pounds  each. 

The  pigs  in  each  lot  zverc  fed  a mixture  of  half  shorts  and  half 
hominy  feed,  while  those  in  Lot  I were  given  in  ad- 
dition a small  amount  of  American  stock  food  in  each  ration. 
This  character  of  feed  was  supplied  during  the  term  of  the  ex- 
periment which  extended  from  October  16,  1S99  to  February  14, 
1900,  a term  of  122  days. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  and  character  of  tlie 
food  eaten  by  each  lot  of  pigs  during  each  weekly  period : 

TABLE.  I. 


Total  food  fed  per  period,  lbs.  and  oss. 


Periods,  7 days 
each 

Lot  I 

Lot  II 

Shorts 

Hominy 

feed 

Americin 
Stock  food 

Shorts 

Hominy 

feed 

I 

Oct  18-25  j 

*“42  34  m 

42341b 

lib  15  oz 

423^1b 

423^1b 

II 

Oct  25-Novl  i 

511/2  lb 

51 1/2  lb 

21b  14  oz 

51 1/2  lb 

511/2  lb 

III 

Nov  1-8  • 1 

56 

lb 

56 

lb 

21b  10  oz 

56 

lb 

56 

lb 

IV 

I Nov  8-15 

56 

lb 

56  . 

lb 

21b  10  oz 

56 

lb 

56 

lb 

V 

Nov  15-22 

63 

lb 

63 

lb 

21b  10  oz 

63 

lb 

63 

lb 

VI 

Nov  22-29 

70 

lb 

70 

lb 

21b  10  oz 

70 

lb 

70 

lb 

VII 

Nov  29-Dec  6 

83 

lb 

83 

lb 

21b  10  oz  I 

83 

lb 

83 

lb 

VIII 

Dec  27-Jau  3 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

51b 

4 oz  1 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

IX 

1 Dec  13-20 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

31b 

8 oz 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

X 

Dec  20-27 

84 

lb 

84 

Ib 

31b 

8 oz 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

XI 

Dec.  27-Jan  3 

84 

lb  1 

1 84 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

XII 

Jan  3-10 

84 

lb  1 

' 84 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

j XIII 

Jan  10-17 

84 

lb 

1 84 

lb 

51b 

4 0z 

84 

lb 

84 

lb 

1 XIV 

Jan  17-24 

91 

lb  1 

i 91 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

91 

lb 

91 

lb 

I XV 

Jan  24-31 

98 

lb  1 

1 98 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

98 

lb 

98 

lb 

j XVI 

.Jan  31-Feb  7 

68 

lb  1 

1 68 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

85 

lb 

85 

lb 

5 XVII 

Feb  7-14  1 

90 

lb  ' 

1 90 

lb 

51b 

4 oz 

90 

lb 

90 

lb 

:’  '20da  Total  ||1273Vj  lb  |T273%lt)  164tb  5 oz  ||129Ft41b  |1290i4m  1 


ii9 


During  the  experiment  the  pigs  in  each  lot  were  weighed  at 
the  end. of  each  weekdy  period,  and  a record  was  kept  of  the  same. 
The  general  health  of  the  animals  was  excellent,  and  there  wa.s 
no  set-back  to  the  experiment. 

Table  II  gives  the  weights  of  each  pig,  which  are  as  follows: 


TABLE  II. 

Weights  of  pigs  in  pounds. 


Date 

Lot  I 

Lot  11 

1 Gd  Americau  Stock  Food. 

Ftd  no 

1 Stock  Foo  . 

1&9;L 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Total 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Total 

I'.HJO 

257 

258 

200 

to  5 

Wt. 

2.54 

270 

25!) 

204 

Wt. 

Oct  18.. 

1 58.5  i 

44. 

67. 

94.5  1 

!264. 

53. 

56.5 

“6275“ 

“^887“  ' 

126i7 

Oot  25.. 

1 69.  i 

51.  1 

75.5 

108.  1 

1303.5 

60. 

65. 

70. 

98.  i 

[293. 

Nov  1.. 

1 78.  1 

1 57.5 

i 86. 

117.  1 

1338.5 

1 72. 

71.5 

78. 

107.5  i 

[329. 

Nov.  8. . II  89. 

1 65. 

1 95.  1 

il28.  1 

j377. 

j 82.5 

82. 

89.5 

120.  1 

!374. 

Nov.  15.1 

j 95. 

1 

jl03.  1 

|137. 

1406. 

1 87. 

90.5 

93. 

123.  1 

i393.5 

Nov.  22.1 

M06.5 

81.5 

1114. 

150.5  1 

[452.5 

jioo. 

99. 

100.5 

134.  1 

[433.5 

Nov.  29.  j 

|119. 

! 91. 

|126.5 

160.  1 

1496.5 

1113.5 

112.5 

110. 

148.  1 

[490. 

I>ec.  6...I 

130. 

■105.5 

,138. 

174.  1 

[547.5 

[128.  1 

121. 

129.5 

103.  1 

i541.5 

Dec  13. .| 

1140.5 

I113.5 

1147. 

189.5 

[590.5 

|l3o. 

T29. 

137. 

170.  ' 

[571. 

Dac  20. . . j 

1)149.5 

1131.5 

■|161. 

[202.5 

]644.5 

1147.5 

[146.5 

147.5 

184.5  j 

16^6, 

Dec  27..  1 

il64. 

[135. 

,175. 

[216. 

[690. 

162.5 

159. 

159.5 

191.  ! 

|G72. 

•Ian.  3... 

|169. 

;i4L 

1184. 

[221. 

[715. 

169. 

]166. 

169.5 

197.  1 

|701.5 

Jan  10.. 

|l85. 

T54. 

■198. 

234. 

[771. 

181. 

182.5 

181. 

205.  1 

1749.5 

Jan  17.. 

1194. 

1163. 

205. 

|239. 

801. 

193. 

194. 

191.5 

208.  1 

786.5 

Jan  24.. 

1202. 

[175. 

1213. 

|256. 

846. 

206. 

203. 

204. 

216.  1 

829. 

Jan  31.. 

1219. 

>193.5 

'[229. 

|271. 

912.5 

[217. 

215. 

209. 

»235. 

876. 

Feb.  7.. 

[217. 

1192. 

;227. 

[258.5 

894.5  1 

[227. 

225. 

[221. 

235. 

908. 

Feb  14.. 

'I22.3. 

)202. 

1245. 

[276. 

1^46.  1 

[241. 

231. 

|235. 

242. 

949. 

To’l  gain|jl64.5  j158. 

11787“ 

)181T5~' 

[[6827“ 

111887“ 

17475“ 

|f72.5" 

1547“ 

16897 

From  the  tables  it  is  shown  that  the  following  gains  were 
made : 


Lot.  T 

Con  (lirnental 


1‘ood . 

Total  gain  in  120  days 682.0  lt)s 

Average  gain  per  pig 170.5  Tbs 

Average  daily  gain  per  pig 1.42IT)S 


Average  daily  gain  per  lot 5.68 tbs 


Lot  II. 

No  Condimenial 
Kood. 

689.0  lbs. 
172.2  lbs. 
1.431bs. 

5. 74  lbs. 


120 

If  we  examine  into  the  cost  of  production,  taking-  seventy 
cents(./0  cts.)  per  hundred  as  the  cost  of  the  shorts  and  hominv 
feed  which  was  the  case  at  this  time,  and  estimating  five  cents 
(.05  cts.)  per  pound  as  tlie  price  of  the  stock  food,  we  obtain 
the  following  resuluts : 


Lot  I.  Lot  II. 

Total  pounds  of  gain 682  689. 

Value  of  gain  at  cts  per  lb $30.69  $31.00. 

Total  cost  of  food  consumed 21.03  18.06. 


Profit $ 9.66  $13.94. 

Cost  of  producing  each  pound  of  gain 3.0  cts  2.6  cts 


Pounds  of  food  required  per  lb  of  gain 3.84  3.71 

The  results  of  this  experiment  favor  Lot  II  where  no  condi- 
mental  food  was  used. 

Another  experiment  in  this  same  field  was  taken  up  by  ^Ir. 
C.  W.  Ely,  a 1902  graduate  of  the  School  of  Agriculture  of  Pur- 
due University,  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  writer. 
Mr.  Ely  made  a very  complete  report  upon  this  experiment,  from 
which  the  writer  abstracts  the  following  details: 

Six  grade  Poland  China  barrows  were  used,  and  were  divid- 
ed into  two  lots  of  three  each.  On  January  23,  1902,  Lot  I 
weighed  176^  lbs.  and  Lot  II,  177!  lbs.  For  one  week  following 
this  date  each  lot  was  fed  the  same  food,  consisting  of  equal  parts 
corn  meal  and  shorts.  On  January  30,  when  the  experiment  be- 
gan, Lot  I showed  a gain  of  14  lbs,  and  Lot  II  of  1 lbs. 

Beginning  on  January  30,  in  the  afternoon  Lot  I was  fed  one 
tablespoonful  of  Rauh's  Stock  Food,  in  the  grain  ration  which 
was  the  same  for  each  lot  as  during  tlie  previous  week,  this  be- 
ing adopted  as  the  permanent  ration. 

An  analysis  of  this  Stock  Food  given  in  the  Twelfth  Annual 
Report  of  this  Experiment  Station,  shows  that  it  contains  53.70 


per  cent  protein,  and  that  it  contains  a large  amount  of  animal 
matter. 

On  March  6,  Standard  Stock  Food  was  substituted  for  the 
Rauh's. 

Table  III  gives  the  weekly  weights  of  the  individual  pigs  in 
each  lot,  and  the  total  weights. 


TABLE  III. 

Weights  of  pigs,  in  pounds. 


1900. 

1 

Lot  I 

Lot  II  I 

No. 

1 

No 

No. 

Total 

No. 

No 

N(K 

Total  I 

Date 

:597 

393  j 

399 

4<i0 

401 

402 

1 i 

Jan.  30  1 

' 65 

581/2 

66I/2 

190 

651/2 

66y2 

57 

189  1 

Feb.  G 1 

1 72 

66y2 

75 

213y2 

72 

71 

631/2 

206 1/2 

Feb.  13  

80 

75 

81 

236 

79 

80 

69 

229 

Feb.  20  

1 92 

821/2 

91 

26514 

89 

88 

78 

255 

Feb.  27  

1 100 

91 

97 

288 

99 

97 

83 

279 

Mar.  G 

110 

99 

112 

321 

109 

10714 

92 

3 18 1/2 

Mar.  13  

: 118 

111 

1221/2 

35iy2 

120 

122 

101 

342 

Mar.  20  

1 12414 

1131/2 

1301/2 

3681/2 

1311/2 

1281/2 

106 1/2 

366 14 

Mar.  27  

! 138 

132 

146 

416 

146 

142y2 

118 

4061/2 

Apr.  3 

i 150 

142 

1541/2 

4461/2 

154 

148 

1211/2 

4231/2 

Apr.  10  

! IGI14 

161 

164 

4861/2 

170 

164 

136 

470 

Apr.  17  

1 1711/2 

! 1711/2 

178 

521  1 

ll  178 

1781/2 

149 

5051/2 

Apr.  24  

i 191 

1 187 

1 199 

577  1 

I 199 

193 

163 

555 

I Gain  ! 12G  | ]28V2|  132i^|  387  ||  133yo|  126y2|  lOG  | 3GG  | 

r~Av.  wk.  gaini  10.5  | 10.7  T 11.04|  22.T5IT  lT.13j  10.54!  8783  | 30^5  | 


The  above  figures  show  a gain  of  Lot  I,  fed  condiment al 
foods  of  3>87  lbs.,  while  Lot  II  showed  a gain  of  366  lbs.,  or  21 
lljs  in  favor  of  Lot  I. 

The.se  pigs  were  fed  and  ate  the  following  amounts  of  food,  as 
shown  in  Table  IV. 


TABLE  IV. 

Pounds  and  ozs.  of  food  fed  per  week. 


Lot  I 


Lot  II 


Date 


li,  corn  meal,  V2  shorts  and 
stock  food 


1/2  corn  meal  and 
V2  shorts 


1 9 0 2 Meal  and  shorts  ^ Stock  food 


Jan. 

30-Feb.  6 . . . | 

63 

lbs. 

12 

ozs. 

5% 

ozs.  I 

61 

lbs. 

1 

Feb. 

6-Feb  13  ...| 

74 

lbs. 

0 

ozs. 

5% 

ozs. 

7.0 

lbs. 

12 

ozs. 

Feb. 

13-Feb.  20  ...' 

86 

lbs. 

6 

ozs. 

5% 

ozs. 

82 

lbs. 

0 

ozs. 

Feb. 

20-Feb.  27  ... 

93 

lbs. 

0 

ozs. 

534 

ozs.  1 

89 

lbs. 

0 

ozs.  j 

1 Feb. 

27-Mch.  6 . . 

106 

lbs. 

12 

ozs. 

8 

ozs.  ] 

103 

lbs. 

10 

ozs.  1 

1 Mch. 

6*-Mch.  13...  .i 

107 

lbs. 

2 

ozs. 

534 

ozs.  ] 

113 

lbs. 

12 

ozs.  1 

1 Mch. 

13-Mch.  20  .. 

113 

lbs. 

0 

ozs. 

8.4 

ozs. 

[ 113 

lbs. 

6 

ozs.  i 

j Mch 

20-Mch  27  .. 

126 

ll.s. 

r s. 

1 4 

ozs.  1 

1 127 

lbs. 

0 

ozs.  / 

1 Mch. 

27-Apr.  3 ... 

130 

lbs. 

4 

ozs. 

1 934 

ozs. 

108 

lbs. 

10 

ozs.  ' 

1 Apr. 

3-Apr.  10  .. 

141 

lbs. 

14 

ozs.  1 

11.2 

ozs. 

133 

lbs. 

6 

ozs.  [ 

Apr. 

10- Apr.  17  .. 

143 

lbs. 

4 

ozs. 

11 .8 

ozs. 

152 

lbs. 

0 

ozs.  j 

1 Apr. 

17-Apr.  24  .. 

169 

lbs. 

0 

ozs. 

14. 

ozs. 

170 

lbs. 

4 

ozs.  1 

1 Total 1 

11354 

lbs. 

8 

ozs. 

i 10014 

ozs. 

1324 

lbs. 

12 

ozs.  j 

* Began  use  Standard  stock  food  March  6. 


During  the  first  three  or  four  weeks  the  pigs  fed  condimental 
food  ate  apparently  with  more  relish  than  did  Lot  II,  hut  this  dif- 
ference in  appetite  gradually  disappeared.  As  Lot  I ate  slightly 
more  than  Lot  II,  perhaps  this  was  due  to  the  condimental  fooil 
although  it  is  more  probable  that  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Pig  No. 
402  of  Lot  II  was  a poorer  individual  than  the  other  five  pigs, 
'fhe  health  of  the  pigs  was  fairly  good  all  through  the  experiment. 

A financial  statement  of  this  experiment  appears  as  follows : 

Lot.  I Lot  II 


Gain  in  weight  387  lbs.  at  6 cts  per  lb $23.22 

Value  of  67714  lbs.  corn  meal  at  $1.35  cwt 9.14 

Value  of  67714  lbs.  shorts  at  $1.00  cwt 6.77 

Value  of  614  lbs.  condiment  at  5 cts 33 

Total  value $16,24 

Profit  6.98 

Gain  in  weight  366  lbs.  at  6 cts.  lb $21.96 

Value  of  662%  lbs.  corn  meal  at  $1.35 $ 8.84 

Value  of  662%  lbs.  shorts  at  $1.00 6.62 


Total  value $15.46  $15.46 


Profit  $ 6.50 


This  shows  a profit  in  favor  of  the  condimental  food,  of  48 
cents. 

These  two  different  experiments,  in  results  are  very  general- 
ly in  harmony  with  experiments  conducted  by  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert in  England,  on  the  influence  of  stock  foods,  and  also  with 
other  experiments  where  similar  studies  were  made. 

In  themselves,  there  is  no  special  objections  to  stock  foods. 
In  fact  there  are  brands  made  that  are  rich  in  nutriment,  and 
have  a high  value  as  a food.  The  principle  criticism  that  can  be 
made  i-f  the  excessive  price  generally  charged  for  them,  which  is 
far  beyond  their  value.  No  doubt,  in  many  cases  oil  meal  will 
give  fully  as  satisfactory  results  as  the  stock  food.  The  feeder 
should  study  this  matter  carefully,  and  if  he  will  use  a variety  of 
food,  including  oil  meal,  and  will  ascertain  the  value  of  some  of 
the  more  common  tonics  that  may  be  given  stock  in  the  foods, 
he  will  secure  no  doubt  equally  good  results  at  the  least  cost.  He 
will  in  fact  be  able  to  make  his  own  stock  food,  and  thus  save 
paying  high  prices  for  feed  of  an  unknown  character. 


- 


Purdue  Universitu 

Aoricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  No.  94.  Vol.  12 

FEBRUARY, 1903 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


rrr.MsiiEi)  I’.v  THE  Si’A'iton, 
LaFave'I'I'e,  Ini)., 
r.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL, 


William  V.  Stuaet,  President, 
WILLIA3I  A.  Banks, 

Sylvester  Johnson, 

David  £.  Bee3I, 

Job  H.  YanXatta, 


LaPayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 
Irvington,  Marion  Co. 
Spencer,  Owen  Co. 
LaPayette  Tippecanoe  .Co. 
.Port  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 
(rreenfleld,  Hancock  Co. 
Port  Wayne^  Allen  Co. 
Shelby ville,  Shelby  Co. 


James  M.  Barrett, 
Charles  Domning, 
Charles  B.  Stemen, 
Charles  Major, 


Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 
James  M.  Powler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 
Henry  A.  Huston,  A.  M.,  A.  C., 
WILLIA3I  C.  Latta,  M.  S., 

James  Troop,  S., 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  1).  Sc., 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D., 
Hubert  E.  A'anXorman,  B.  S.,  - 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S., 

Alfred  T.  AViancko, 


President  of  the  University. 
Director  and  Chemist. 

Agriculturist. 

Horticulturist. 

Botanist. 
Veterinarian. 
Dairyman . 
Livestock. 
Assistant  Agriculturist. 


Diseases  of  Sheep. 


General  Treatise  by  R.  A.  Craig,  D,  V.  M. 

Laboratory  Work  by  A.  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M,,  M.  D. 

Sheep  are  subject  to  as  great  variety  of  diseases  as  most  other  farm 
animals.  Some  of  the  diseases  are  much  more  common  than  others,  and 
this  fact  together  with  the  great  similarity  in  the  behavior  which  the  ani- 
mal shows  in  most  diseases,  has  led  flock-masters  to  think  that  sheen  are 
subject  to  few  ailments.  The  similarity  in  behavior  in  the  early  stages 
makes  it  difficult  to  form  a diagnosis  without  a thorough  examination  of 
the  animal  and  surroundings. 

In  examining  a sh^ep,  the  behavior,  appearance,  general  condition  and 
surroundings  must  all  be  taken  under  consideration.  The  history  should 
be  obtained  from  the  attendant  as  frequently  that  is  of  importance  in 
arriving  at  a diagnosis  and  in  determining  the  line  of  treatment.  In  none 
of  the  domestic  animals,  can  disease  be  more  successfully  combatted  by 
prevention  than  in  sheep.  It  is  along  this  line  of  treatment  that  we  must 
direct  greatest  attention  as  the  animals  are  not  good  patients  when  once 
attacked. 

The  Symptoms  inform  us  as  to  the  condition  of  the  animal  at  the  onset 
and  auring  the  progress  of  a disease.  Thus  we  have  the  symptoms  con- 
nected with  (a)  the  pulse;  (b)  the  respiration;  (c)  body  temperature;  (d) 
the  mucous  membrane;  (e)  surface  of  the  body;  (f)  secretions  ahd  excre- 
tions; and  (g)  nervous  system. 

The  pulse  is  not  as  good  guide  to  the  condition  of  the  sheep  as  in  the 
horse  or  cow  as  it  is  too  readily  influenced  by  excitement,  by  the  pres- 
ence of  strangers  and  unusual  handling. 

We  obtain  the  pulse  in  sheep  by  pressing  the  femoral  artery  on  the 
inside  of  the  thigh.  The  pulse  in  the  nealthy  sheep  is  subject  to  considera- 
ble variations,  from  60  to  80  beats  per  minute,  and  when  excited  or  nervous 
may  run  considerably  above  one  hundred.  The  following  varieties  of 
pulse  are  recognized  in  disease;  frequent  or  infrequent,  quick  or  slow, 
large  or  small,  hard  or  soft,  and  regular  or  intermittent.  The  frequency 


4 


of  the  pulse  has  reference  to  the  number  of  pulsations  per  minute:  quick 
or  slow  has  reference  to  the  time  required  for  the  pulse  wave  to  pass;  large 
or  small  to  the  volume  of  blood  that  passes;  hard  or  soft  to  the  sense  of 
feeling  while  passing  under  the  finger;  and  regular  and  intermittent  to  the 
interval  between  the  beats.  There  may  be  a number  of  beats  regular  in 
time  and  then  the  missing  of  one  or  two,  or  there  may  be  an  acceleration  of 
a few  beats.  The  condition  of  the  circulation  may  also  be  judged  by  plac- 
ing the  hands  on  each  side  of  the  chest  as  nearly  over  the  heart  as  possi- 
ble. This  is  applicable  especially  in  lambs  and  sheep  thin  in  fiesh. 

When  the  sheep  is  quiet,  the  number  of  respirations  will  vary  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  per  minute:  if  excited,  exercised,  or  when  warm  this 
number  will  be  greatly  increased.  In  most  animals  there  is  a comparatively 
close  relationship  between  the  respirations  and  pulse,  (1  to  4 or  1 to  5), 
but  in  sheep  this  relationship  is  not  very  constant.  In  disease  the  res- 
pirations may  be  quickened  and  their  character  changed  as  in  fever,  pleu- 
risy, peritonitis,  etc.  In  abdominal  respiration  the  movements  of  the  wall 
of  the  chest  are  limited — as  occurs  in  pleurisy,  while  in  thoracic  respira- 
tion the  muscles  of  the  abdomen  are  held  rigid  and  the  walls  of  the  chest 
make  up  for  the  deficiency.  This  latter  condition  is  seen  in  peritonitis. 

In  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  air  passages,  irritation  from  dust  or 
parasites,  the  secretions  are  modified  and  there  is  dryness  or  discharge, 
and  usually  sneezing  or  coughing.  There  may  be  modified  respiratory 
sounds  that  are  of  value  in  making  a diagnosis. 

The  normal  temperature  of  the  sheep  is  subject  to  variation.  It  is 
taken  per  rectum,  the  ordinary  fever  thermometer  being  used.  The  varia- 
tions are  from  100°  to  105°  Fahrenheit.  During  exercise  and  when  the 
weather  or  stable  is  warm  and  close,  the  body  temperature  is  elevated: 
during  cold  weather  or  after  drinking  cold  water  it  will  be  lowered.  In 
order  to  get  at  the  normal  temperature  it  is  well  to  take  the  temperature 
of  several  sheep  in  the  flock. 

In  health  the  mucous  membranes  are  usually  of  a pale  reddish  color. 
Exercise  will  cause  them  to  become  more  vascular.  When  inflamed  they 
are  of  a bright-red  color.  In  collapse,  internal  hemorrhage,  impoverished 
or  bloodless  conditions  they  are  pale.  In  chronic  indigestion  the  mouth  is 
foul  and  soapy;  if  irritated,  the  mucous  membranes  are  excessively 
moist,  and  if  feverish  they  are  dry  In  some  of  the  parasitic  and  liver  dis- 
eases they  are  yellowish. 


5 


The  fleece  should  look  smooth  and  have  plenty  of  yolk:  the  skin  should 
be  of  a light  pink  color.  When  the  animal  is  diseased  or  is  unthrifty, 
the  wool  may  become  dry  and  brittle,  and  the  sidn  pale  and  rigid.  If 
affected  with  external  parasites,  the  fleece  looks  “taggy”,  or  the  wool  lost 
over  large  areas,  and  the  skin  itself  is  changed.  During  febrile  diseases 
the  temperature  of  the  skin  is  not  uniformly  distributed.  If  fatally 
affected  the  skin  feels  cold.  When  debilitated,  especially  if  the  debility  be 
due  to  iniernal  parasites,  dropsical  swellings  may  occur  under  the  jaw  and 
in  different  pans  of  the  body. 

The  character  of  the  excretions  from  the  kidneys  and  bowels  become 
modified  in  disease  and  should  be  considered  in  making  a diagnosis  of  the 
different  diseases. 

The  state  of  the  nervous  system  is  indicated  by  dullness,  excitability, 
turning  the  head  to  one  side,  walking  in  a circle,  throwing  the  head  back, 
or  by  paralysis. 

Administration  of  Medicine.  Drugs  may  be  administered  by  way  of 
the  following  channels:  (a)  by  the  mouth,  (b)  by  hypodermically  inject- 

ing into  the  tissues  beneath  the  skin,  (c)  through  the  skin,  (d)  by  way 
of  the  air  passages  and  lungs,  and  (e)  per  rectum.  The  most  common 
method  of  administration  is  by  way  of  the  mouth  in  the  form  of  a drench. 
This  can  be  done  when  the  sheep  is  in  the  standing  position  or  when 
thrown  on  its  haunches  and  held  between  the 'knees.  The  standing  posi- 
tion is  to  be  preferred  and  it  is  best  to  give  the  drench  w’ith  a small  dose 
syringe.  Care  should  be  taken  to  not  throw  the  head  too  far  back,  espe- 
pecially  if  the  drench  is  bulky  or  irritating,  as  a part  may  get  into  the  air 
passages  and  cause  serious  trouble.  If  a prompt,  energetic  effect  is  desired, 
and  the  drug  non-irritating,  it  may  be  injected  into  the  tissue  beneath  the 
skin.  In  sheep,  this  method  of  administration  is  seldom  used. 

Iflniments,  blisters  and  poultices  are  applied  to  the  skin  for  their  local 
effect.  Absorption  does  not  readily  take  place  unless  considerable  friction 
is  used  in  applying  the  medicine  or  the  outer  layer  of  skin  is  removed  by 
blistering  or  by  other  means. 

Volatile  drugs  as  chloroform,  ether,  etc.,  are  rapidly  absorbed  by  the 
enormous  vascular  surface  of  the  lungs.  Anesthetics  are  seldom  used  in 
this  class  of  animals  and  when  medicine  is  administered  by  way  of  the  res- 
piratory track  it  is  generally  used  in  the  different  respiratory  diseases.  This 


is  done  by  partly  filling  a pail  with  boiling  water,  adding  to  it  an  ounce  or 
two  of  creolin,  turpentine  or  w'hatever  drug  is  desired  and  allowing  the 
sheep  to  inhale  the  vapors  as  they  rise  from  the  pail.  To  direct  the  steam 
toward  the  animal’s  nose,  a light  stable  blanket  can  be  thrown  over  the 
head  of  the  sheep  and  allowed  to  drop  over  the  sides  of  the  pail. 

An  enema  or  clyster  is  a fluid  injection  into  the  rectum  and  is  for  the 
following  purposes;  (a)  to  increase  the  action  of  a purgative;  (b)  to  stim- 
ulate the  peristaltic  movement  of  the  intestines;  (c)  for  a local  effect  on  the 
rectum,  and  (d)  to  administer  medicine  and  supply  food.  An  injection  is 
generally  given  for  its  purgative  effect  and  it  is  best  to  allow  the  fluid  to 
gravitate  into  the  bowels  from  a height  of  about  two  feet.  The  apparatus 
needed  for  this  purpose  is  a funnel  and  two  or  three  feet  of  rubber  tubing 
with  a nozzle  at  one  end.  Before  introducing  the  nozzle  into  the  rectum 
it  should  be  lubricated  with  vaseline.  In  giving  a large  injection,  it  is 
best  to  elevate  the  hind  parts  of  the  animal. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 


STOMATITIS.  SORE  MOUTH. 

Causes.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  of  sheep  is  rather  deli- 
cate, but  so  carefully  do  they  select  their  feed  that  it  is  seldom  injured. 
Stomatitis,  or  sore  mouth  may  be  seen  as  a complication  in  infections  and 
febrile  diseases.  Young  and  debilitated  lambs  when  kept  in  unhygenic 
quarters  (poorly  ventilated,  filthy,  damp  stables)  are  prone  to  the  ulcera- 
tive form  of  sore  mouth.  The  disease  seems  to  be  communicated  from  one 
lamb  to  the  other  and  is  no  doubt  due  to  some  of  the  pathogenic  germs. 

Symptoms.  In  simple  stomatitis  the  parts  are  congested,  swollen  and 
inflamed.  At  first  the  lining  membrane  is  dry,  but  in  a short  time  the 
secretions  become  excessive  and  the  saliva  dribbles  from  the  mouth.  The 
decomposition  of  the  food,  etc.,  going  on  in  the  mouth  gives  rise  to  a very 
disagreeable  odor.  Eating  is  quite  painful  and  the  animal  is  generally 
unable  to  take  food.  Recovery  usually  takes  place  in  a few  days. 

In  the  ulcerative  form  the  gums  become  dark  red,  spongy  and  bleed 
easily.  In  a short  time  a part  dies,  sloughs  out  and  a deep,  ragged  looking 


7 


ulcer  forms.  The  ulcer  can  be  seen  on  the  lips  and  gums  and  may  become 
quite  extensive,  the  teeth  loosening,  dropping  out  and  perforations  occur- 
ing  in  the  lips.  Threads  of  saliva  dribble  from  the  mouth  and  the  breath 
has  a disagreeable  odor.  The  lamb  refuses  to  suckle,  becomes  weak  and 
may  have  a foetid  diarrhea.  This  disease  frequently  results  in  death  in 
about  one  or  two  weeks  and  if  recovery  occurs  it  is  very  slow.  The  lin- 
ing membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach  may  be  reddened  and  the  lungs  in- 
flamed and  the  seat  of  bloody  exudations. 

Treatment  In  simple  stomatitis  washing  the  mouth  with  antiseptic 
and  astringent  washes  once  a day  is  all  that  is  necessary.  A four  per 
cent  watery  solution  of  boric  acid  can  be  used.  Plenty  of  this  solution 
should  be  used  and  the  mouth  washed  thoroughly.  The  animal  must  be 
fed  soft  feeds  and  gruels.  In  the  ulcerative  form  preventive  measures 
are  important.  This  consists  in  improving  the  hygienic  conditions  and 
isolating  the  sick  lambs.  The  quarters  should  be  cleaned  and  the  floors 
and  walls  washed  with  a disinfectant.  The  local  treatment  consists  in 
removing  the  dead  tissue  from  the  ulcers,  washing  the  mouth  with  a two 
per  cent  watery  solution  of  creolin  and  touching  the  ulcers  with  lunar 
caustic. 

DEPRAVED  APPETITE.  WOOL  EATING  LAMBS. 

This  disease  is  more  common  in  lambs  than  in  older  animals.  The 
thriftiness  of  the  lamb  is  interfered  with  and  in  a large  per  cent  of 
cases  may  prove  fatal.  The  loss  due  to  the  injury  to  the  fleeces  is  of  some 
importance  from  an  economic  point  of  view. 

Causes.  By  some  it  is  considered  to  be  due  to  a depraved  sense  of 
taste  and  is  classifled  as  a nervous  disease.  In  most  cases  it  seems  to 
result  from  example  and  improper  food,  especially  food  deflcient  in  saline 
matter.  Sheep  shut  up  during  the  winter  may  get  into  the  habit  of  chew- 
ing each  other’s  fleeces.  Lambs  are  especially  apt  to  contract  this  habit 
when  suckling  ewes  having  long  hair  on  the  udder  that  is  soiled  with  urine 
and  faeces. 

Symptoms.  It  may  be  sometime  before  symptoms  of  unthriftiness 
are  manifested  and  outside  of  the  loss  to  the  fleece,  no  symptoms  are 
noticed.  Finally  the  digestive  tract  becomes  involved,  due  to  the  irrita- 
tion from  the  hair  balls  that  accumulate  in  the  stomach,  digestion  is 
deranged  and  the  sheep  loose  flesh.  The  animals  are  sometimes  consti- 


8 


pated  or  have  a diarrhea.  Death  may  he  due  to  the  small  hair  balls 
drifting  along  and  obstructing  the  openings  from  the  different  apart- 
ments of  the  stomach,  or  as  a result  of  the  inflammation  of  the  stomach, 
and  intestines.  The  course  of  the  disease  varies  from  a few  months  to  a 
year. 

Treatment.  Avoid  keeping  sheep  in  too  close  quarters  and  allow  plenty 
of  exercise.  When  the  disease  occurs  on  poor  pasture  a change  to  a bet- 
ter one  and  a liberal  allowance  of  salt  will  prevent  it,  or  a well  balanced 
ration  of  grain  can  be  added.  The  long  wool  on  the  udder  of  ewes  should 
be  clipped  off  and  if  the  lambs  contract  this  habit  they  must  be  separated 
from  their  mothers  except  when  nursing.  When  indigestion  is  present  the 
following  bitter  tonics  can  be  given;  bicarbonate  of  soda  (two  ounces), 
powdered  gentian  (one  ounce),  sulphate  of  soda  (six  ounces);  mix  and 
give  one  teaspoonful  in  the  feed  morning  and  evening. 

ACUTE  TYMPANITIS,  BLOATING,  HOVEN. 

Bloating  is  more  common  among  cattle  than  among  sheep,  but  usual- 
ly when  it  does  occur  a number  of  animals  in  the  flock  are  affected.  The 
disease  is  more  common  during  late  summer  and  early  fall  than  at  any 
other  season  of  the  year. 

Causes.  Diseases  of  the  rumen  or  any  part  of  the  digestive  track 
predisposes  sheep  to  tympanitis.  When  due  to  these  conditions,  it  usually 
takes  on  a chronic  form".  It  may  occur  as  a symptom  of  choking.  A very 
common  cause  is  succulent  foods  such  as  clover,  rape,  green  corn,  etc., 
especially  if  wet  with  dew  or  a light  rain  and  when  the  animal  is  not 
accustomed  to  eating  them.  Frozen  food  and  drinking  large  quantities  of 
cold  water  after  eating  may  sometimes  cause  a fermentation  of  the  food  in 
the  rumen. 

Symptoms.  The  abdomen  is  distended  with  gas  and  is  larger  than 
normal. The  left  flank  is  distended  at  first  but  when  the  gas  forms  in  large 
amounts  the  whole  abdomen  becomes  distended.  This  occurs  very  quick- 
ly, is  elastic  and  resonant.  The  sheep  stop  eating  and  ruminating,  look 
anxious,  the  eyes  are  prominent,  the  mucuous  membranes  are  congested 
and  faeces  are  expelled  at  irregular  intervals.  If  not  relieved  the  respirations 
become  labored  and  the  pulse  weak.  Saliva  dribbles  from  the  mouth. 
The  animal  becomes  very  stupid  and  finally  sinks  to  the  ground  and  dies. 
Death  occurs  as  a result  of  the  absorption  by  the  blood-vessels  of  a toxic 


9 


product  from  the  stomach  and  the  interference  with  the  aeration  of  the 
blood  in  the  lungs  due  to  the  pressure  on  the  air  cells  by  the  distended 
rumen.  Acute  tympanitis  takes  a very  rapid  course.  If  the  gas  escapes 
by  way  of  the  gullet  or  intestines  a spontaneous  cure  may  result. 

Treatment.  Preventive  measures  are  important.  A change  to  a suc- 
culent diet  should  be  made  gradually;  musty  grains,  fodders,  roots  and 
frosted  foods  should  not  be  fed  to  sheep.  It  is  not  best  to  allow  a flock  to 
graze  in  clover  or  eat  any  succulent  food  if  wet  with  dew  or  light  rain. 
The  gas  can  be  removed  very  quickly  by  puncturing  the  rumen  with  the 
trocar  and  canula.  The  seat  of  the  operation  is  on  the  most  prominent 
portion  of  the  left  flank.  A small  sized  trocar  and  canula  should  be  used 
and  to  guard  against  infection,  it  should  be  sterilized  before  using  and  the 
skin  over  tlie  seat  of  the  puncture  washed  with  a disinfectant.  The  instru- 
ment is  then  plunged  through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  rumen,  the 
trocar  withdrawn  and  the  gas  allowed  to  escape.  Before  withdrawing  the 
canula  the  trocar  should  be  replaced.  It  is  always  best  after  using  the'  in- 
strument to  boil  it  in  water.  This  will  insure  a clean  instrument  when 
needed.  When  a number  of  sheep  in  the  flock  are  affected  and  there  is  a 
running  stream  in  the  pasture,  it  is  best  to  drive  them  into  it.  The  cold 
water  coming  in  contact  with  the  wall  of  the  abdomen  may  stimulate  the 
movement  of  the  rumen  and  the  gas  will  be  then  worked  off  by  the  natural 
passages.  Dipping  them  into  water  will  have  the  same  effect.  To  prevent 
further  fermentation,  a tablespoonful  of  turpentine  can  be  given  in  three 
or  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil.  The  following  receipt  is  useful;  glauber 
salts  (half  an  ounce),  powuered  gentian  (one  dram),  aromatic  spirits  of 
ammonia  (two  drams),  water  (six  ounces);  mix  and  give  as  a drench. 

CHRONIC  TYMPANITIS. 

Causes.  The  chronic  form  of  tympanitis  is  generally  due  to  some 
chronic  disease  of  the  digestive  track.  The  persistence  of  some  of  the 
causes  of  the  acute  form  may  lead  to  the  conditions  becoming  chronic. 

Symptoms  . The  whole  digestive  system  seems  to  lack  tone  and  vigor. 
The  bowels  are  irregular  and  the  sheep  falls  away  in  condition  quite 
rapidly.  Instead  of  the  bloating  being  severe  and  intermittent  as  in  the 
acute  form  it  is  continuous  and  the  gas  does  not  form  rapidly. 

Treatment.  The  cause  should  be  removed  if  possilfle,  but  in  some 
chronic  diseases  this  cannot  be  accomi)lished.  The  sheep  should  be  fed 


10 


easily  digestible  food  and  have  free  access  to  plenty  of  common  salt  and 
pure  water.  As  a laxative,  four  ounces  of  sulphate  of  soda  can  be  given 
in  about  ten  ounces  of  water.  As  a digestive  tonic  the  following  can  be 
given;  sulphate  of  soda  (six  ounces),  powdered  gentian  (one  ounce),  and 
powdered  mix  vomica  (one  half  ounce) ; mix,  and  give  one  tablespoonful  in 
the  feed  morning  and  evening.  Whenever  necessary  the  trocar  and  canula 
should  be  used. 

OVERLOADING  OF  THE  RUMEN  OR  PAUNCH. 

Causes.  Overloading  of  the  paunch  is  generally  due  to  a sudden 
change  from  indifferent  or  poor  food  to  palatable,  succulent  food,  such  as 
green  clover,  corn,  sorghum,  etc.,  when  eaten  in  excess.  If  the  digestive 
track  is  diseased  and  the  movements  of  the  paunch  are  weak  overloading 
is  very  apt  to  occur. 

Symptoms.  The  animal  shows  evidence  of  abdominal  pain,  does  not 
ruminate  or  eat  and  is  dull  and  feverish.  The  abdomen  is  distended  on 
the  left  side,  is  not  elastic  as  in  tympanitis,  but  feels  doughy  when  pressed 
on  with  the  fingers.  Some  gas  may  form  but  the  distension  of  the  rumen 
is  mostly  due  to  the  mass  of  food.  When  the  disease  is  acute  the  symp- 
toms are  quite  severe,  the  expression  is  anxious,  the  head  is  extended, 
eyes  prominent  and  the  respirations  hurried.  Constipation  is  a prominent 
symptom.  Death  may  take  place  in  a few  hours  but  generally  runs  a 
course  of  several  days.  When  the  symptoms  are  mild,  recovery  is  com- 
plete in  a few  days. 

Treatment.  The  proper  preventive  precautions  should  be  used.  The 
sick  animal  should  be  subject  to  a rigid  diet.  Exercise  and  rubbing  of 
the  left  flank  may  restore  the  normal  movements  of  the  paunch.  Cold 
water  injections  are  useful.  If  gas  forms  the  trocar  and  canula  must  be 
used.  As  a purgative  from  four  to  six  ounces  of  epsom  salts  can  be  given 
in  plenty  of  water.  To  excite  the  movements  of  the  paunch  four  drams 
of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  two  ounces  of  linseed  oil  can  be  given 
every  few  hours  or  the  following  tonic;  powdered  mix  vomica  (one  half 
ounce,  powdered  ginger  (one  ounce),  bicarbonate  of  soda  (two  ounces); 
mix  and  give  a shiall  tablespoonful  in  a drench  morning  and  evening. 
Strychnine  if  given  hypodermically  in  the  region  of  the  paunch  may  stim- 
ulate it  to  contract.  Rumenotomy  (opening  the  paunch  in  the  left  flank 
and  removing  about  two-thirds  of  its  contents  with  the  hand)  is  not  fol- 


11 


lowed  bj"  as  good  results  as  in  cattle,  and  unless  the  operation  is  careful- 
ly performed  will  result  in  the  death  of  the  animal. 

IMPACTION  OF  THE  THIRD  STOMACH.  STOMACH  STAGGERS. 

Causes.  This  disease  may  occur  during  the  course  of  digestive 
troubles  or  febrile  diseases.  The  third  stomach  may  become  irritated  and 
inflamed  by  sudden  changes  in  the  diet  or  by  food  not  prepared  Tor  en- 
trance to  this  apartment,  as  bran  or  meal  swallowed  hastily.  Dried  and 
innutritions  food  when  eaten  in  excess  and  lack  of  water,  are  very  com- 
mon causes  of  impaction. 

Symptoms.  The  disease  usually  develops  slowly.  The  appetite  is 
diminished,  rumination  occurs  at  irregular  intervals,  the  sheep  is  dull  and 
feverish  and  sometimes  its  movements  are  accompanied  by  a slight  groan. 
Colicky  pains  and  grinding  of  the  teeth  are  sometimes  present.  The 
animal  is  constipated  at  first  but  if  recovery  occurs  it  may  have  a diarrhea. 
In  the  acute  form  nervous  symptoms  are  sometimes  manifested.  The 
animal  is  dull,  drowsy  and  listless  and  staggers  when  it  walks.  At  times 
it  becomes  delirious,  the  eyes  are  prominent,  it  is  restless  and  runs  about 
coming  in  contact  with  whatever  is  in  its  way  until  it  becomes  exhausted 
or  dies  in  a convulsion.  The  acute  cases  usually  run  a rapid  course  but 
in  the  chronic  form  the  disease  may  last  for  days. 

Lesions.  The  third  stomach  appears  larger  and  harder  than  normal 
When  cut  into  the  food  lying  betw^een  the  folds  of  the  mucuous  membrane 
may  be  so  hard  and  dry  that  it  can  be  powdered  between  the  fingers.  The 
lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  is  inflamed  and  the  intestines  may  be  also 
involved. 

Treatment.  The  sheep  must  be  subject  to  a rigid  diet  and  given  plen- 
ty of  water.  A purgative  of  epsom  salts  (six  ounces  in  plenty  of  water)  or 
a liberal  allowance  of  flaxseed  tea  can  be  given.  The  action  of  the  purga- 
tive should  be  aided  by  an  injection.  It  is  usually  best  to  give  a tonic  of 
powdered  nux  vomica  (one  half  ounce)and  sulphate  of  soda(four  ounces); 
mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful  in  a drench  three  times  a day.  If  brain 
symptoms  develop  we  should  prevent  the  sheep  from  doing  itself  harm, 
and  relieve  the  inflammation  as  much  as  possible  by  applying  ice  to  the 
head.  Irritating  purgatives  must  not  be  used.  When  convalescence  takes 
place,  the  animal  should  be  fed  laxative  and  easily  digestible  food. 


12 


CHOKING. 

Causes.  Greedy  feeding  animals  are  predisposed  to  choking.  The 
foreign  bodies  present  in  the  oesophagus  or  gullet  generally  consist  of 
pieces  of  roots  (potatoes,  turnips,  etc.)  hay,  grass,  or  ears  of  corn.  Chok- 
ing may  be  due  to  a diseased  condition  of  the  oesophagus  as  inflammation, 
paralysis,  strictures  and  dilations. 

Symptoms.  The  sheep  stops  feeding,  looks  anxious  and  saliva  drib- 
bles from  the  mouth.  The  respirations  are  hurried  and  more  or  less  dif- 
ficult. Bloating  may  occur.  If  the  choke  is  complete  the  animal  is  unable 
to  take  liquid  or  solid  food  and  death  may  occur  in  a few  hours.  If  incom- 
plete the  symptoms  are  not  marked  and  the  accident  generally  terminatea 
favorably. 

Treatment.  If  the  foreign  body  is  lodged  in  the  back  park  of  the 
mouth  or  pharynx  it  can  be  removed  with  a blunt  hook  or  a long  iron 
spoon;  if  in  the  neck  portion  of  the  oesophagus,  it  may  be  worked  back 
into  the  pharynx  by  pressure  with  the  thumbs  just  below  the  object.  If 
unable  to  force  the  object  back  into  the  mouth  we  must  then  resort  to 
the  probang  and  endeavor  to  force  it  on  into  the  stomach.  This  instru- 
ment is  several  feet  in  length,  hollow  and  has  a bulb  at  the  lower  end.  A 
probang  for  sheep  should  be  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  flexible  and  strong. 
In  an  emergency  a light  rod  of  hickory  or  elm  rounded  at  both  ends,  the 
lower  end  covered  with  a piece  of  chamois  firmly  fastened,  may  be  used. 
Heavy  walled  small  rubber  tubing  will  answer  for  the  ordinary  case.  It 
is  best  to  drench  the  sheep  with  an  ounce  or  two  of  oil  and  smear  the 
instrument  with  oil  before  passing  it.  The  best  position  for  the  sheep  is 
on  its  rump,  the  body  gripped  between  the  knees  and  the  fore  feet  held 
with  the  hands.  The  operator  should  then  grasp  the  tongue  with  one 
hand,  draw  it  out  of  the  mouth,  rest  the  end  of  the  probang  against  the 
hard  palate  and  pass  it  rapidly  into  the  oesophagus.  It  may  require  con- 
siderable pressure  with  the  probang  to  remove  the  object,  also  the  exercise 
of  good  judgment  in  doing  this  or  the  wall  of  the  oesophagus  may  be  in- 
jured. 

DYSENTERY  IN  LAMBS.  WHITE  SCOURS. 

Causes.  This  is  not  an  uncommon  disease  of  young  lambs.  A weak 
constitution  and  unhygenic  surroundings,  damp,  dirty,  overcrowded,  poorly 
ventilated  quarters,  are  important  predisposing  causes.  Retention  of  the 


13 


meconium  is  at  times  a cause  of  scours.  The  most  common  causes  are 
too  much  milk  and  variations  in  its  character.  It  may  be  due  to  a conta- 
gious element  that  gains  entrance  to  the  body  by  way  of  the  umbilical 
cord. 

Symptoms.  The  lamb  is  dull,  depressed,  is  careless  of  the  teat  and  re- 
fuses to  suckle.  Constipation  may  precede  the  diarrhea.  The  lamb 
sometimes  shows  evidence  of  abdominal  pain  by  switching  the  tail  and 
acting  uneasy.  If  fermentation  takes  place  the  abdomen  is  distended, 
The  diarrhea  is  foul  smelling,  the  tail,  hips  and  legs  soon  become  soiled, 
the  animal  is  feverish,  extremities  cold,  and  rapidly  becomes  weak  and 
emaciated.  Death  may  follow  as  a result  of  exhaustion.  If  the  cause  of 
the  disease  is  of  infectious  origin  a large  per  cent,  of  the  lambs  will  die. 

Treatment.  This  is  largely  preventive.  Dry,  well  ventilated,  clean 
quarters  should  be  provided  and  the  lamb  should  be  allowed  plenty  of  ex- 
ercise. If  the  mother’s  milk  does  not  agree  with  the  lamb  and  the  fault 
is  in  the  ration  or  general  management,  it  should  be  corrected.  If  the 
diarrhea  is  due  to  a specific  cause,  the  quarters  must  be  cleaned  and  disin- 
fected. As  soon  as  the  disease  makes  its  appearance  the  umbilical  cord 
of  all  new  born  should  be  swabbed  with  a ten  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  as  nearly  as  possible.  At  first  a laxative  of  castor  oil  (two  drams), 
should  be  given;  this  can  be  followed  by  five  or  ten  drops  of  lauda- 
num three  ' times  a day.  If  there  is  much  fermentation 
and  the  ' faeces  foul  smelling  the  following  can  be  given; 
subnitrate  of  bismuth  (one  dram),  salol  (one  half  dram^  and  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  (four  drams);  mix  and  divide  into  twelve  powders; 
give  one  powder  in  a little  milk  three  times  a day.  When  extremely  foe- 
tid the  following  recipe  is  of  more  benefit;  calomel  (one  half  dram)  chalk 
(six  drams);  mix  and  give  one  teaspoonful  in  milk  three  times  a day.  It 
is  best  to  diet  the  lamb  and  give  the  irritated  stomach  and  intestines  a 
short  rest. 

GAvSTR0-ENTP:1R1TIS.  inflammation  of  the  fourth  stomach 
AND  THE  INTESTINES. 

Causes.  Poorly  fed,  weak  and  debilitated  sheep  are  predisposed  to 
this  disease.  Irritating  foods,  (rich,  spoiled,  or  frosted  foods),  drinking 
water  swarming  with  gei-ms,  over  driving,  aud  over  feeding;  exposure  or 
anything  lessening  the  resisting  powers  of  the  system  may  cause  it.  The 


14 


twisted  stomach  worm  is  a common  cause  of  inflammation  of  the  fourth 
stomach. 

Symptoms.  The  appetite  is  poor  or  lost  and  the  sheep  stops  ruminat- 
ing. The  pulse  and  respirations  are  quickened  and  the  body  temperature 
elevated.  Colicky  pains  may  be  present  and  when  pressure  is  made  with 
the  hand  over  the  region  of  the  fourth  stomach  (right  hypochrondriac)  it 
will  sometimes  cause  the  animal  severe  pain.  At  flrst  the  bowels  are 
constipated,  but  this  soon  changes  to  a foul  smelling  diarrhea  that  is 
mixed  with  mucuous  and  sometimes  tinged  with  blood.  In  severe  cases 
the  sheep  suffers  much  pain,  grinds  its  teeth  strains  and  nevous  symptoms 
are  manifested.  The  general  condition  of  the  animal  is  greatly  changed 
in  a short  time,  becoming  poor  and  weak,  and  it  stands  around  with  the 
back  arched  or  mopes  along  after  the  rest  of  the  flock.  Death  may  occur 
in  a few  days  or  at  most  a few  weeks.  The  prognosis  is  not  very  favor- 
able. 

Lesions  The  tissue  changes  are  mostly  in  the  small  intestines  and 
fourth  stomach.  The  lining  membrane  is  reddened,  thickened  and  may 
contain  a few  ulcers.  The  walls  of  the  intestines  are  softened  and  break 
when  handled. 

Treatment.  If  due  to  any  mistake  in  the  feeding  or  handling,  it  should 
be  corrected  at  once.  Plenty  of  exercise  and  access  to  pure  water  should 
be  allowed.  In  summer  time  it  is  best  to  give  the  sheep  the  run  or  a 
grass  lot  where  there  is  plenty  of  shade.  In  winter  time  they  should  be 
given  warm,  comfortable  quarters.  To  relieve  the  constipation  and  re- 
move the  irritation,  a laxative  should  be  given;  (epsom  salts  three  to  four 
ounces,  or  linseed  oil  flve  to  ten  ounces.)  If  the  constipation  persists  this 
must  be  supplemented  by  an  injection  of  warm  water  and  glycerine.  If 
the  bowels  move  too  freely  and  the  sheep  is  in  pain  a teaspoonful  of 
laudanum  can  be  given  two  or  three  times  a day  or  the  following  prescrip- 
tion can  be  used:  subnitrate  of  bismuth  (one  ounce),  salol  (six  drams), 
and  bicarbonate  of  soda  (three  ounces  j ; mix  and  give  one  teaspoonful  every 
three  or  four  hours.  A tonic  is  sometimes  indicated.  When  this  is  the 
case,  artiflcial  Carlsbad  salts  (equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  soda,  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda,  and  chloride  of  soda)  can  be  given.  The  addition  of  powdered 
gentian  or  mix  vomica  to  the  salts  will  greatly  increase  their  value  as 
a tonic. 


15 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LIVER. 

PARENCHYMATIS.  HEPATITIS.  ACUTE  YELLOW  ATROPHY  OF 

THE  LIVER. 

Causes.  This  disease  is  caused  by  excessive  quantities  of  food  too 
little  exercise,  musty,  decomposed,  irritating  fodders,  excessive  heat,  in- 
juries to  the  liver,  and  damp  swampy  pastures.  It  is  frequently  seen  in 
contagious  diseases  and  parasitic  affections  of  the  liver.  This  condition 
is  always  present  in  lupinosis. 

Symptoms.  At  first  the  symptoms  may  be  obscure.  Nothing  charac- 
teristic is  noted.  The  body  temperature  is  elevated,  the  pulse  is  slow, 
or  if  the  attack  is  severe,  quickened,  the  appetite  is  lost  or  irregular,  and 
the  sheep  acts  dull  and  stupid.  Jaundice  may  be  present.  The  more 
characteristic  symptoms  are  as  follows:  tenderness  when  pressure  is  ap- 
plied over  the  region  of  the  liver,  (right  side  just  back  of  the  last  rib); 
constipation  followed  by  slightly  colored,  fetid  diarrhea;  colicky  pains 
and  a tendency  to  stagger.  If  the  disease  continues  for  some  time  the 
animal  becomes  weak  and  emaciated.  Complications  may  occur,  the  most 
common  being  peritonitis.  The  prognosis  is  not  favorable  in  the  chronic 
cases. 

Treatment.  Preventive  measures  must  be  resorted  to.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  subjecting  the  sheep  to  a spare  diet,  applying  a blister 
to  the  right  side,  giving  a purgative  of  Epsom  salts  or  calomel  and  re- 
peating it  if  necessary.  Artificial  Carlsbad  salts  (equal  parts  of  sulphate 
of  soda,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  chloride  of  soda)  in  teaspoonful  doses 
should  be  given  in  the  feed  two  or  three  times  a day.  When  the  acute 
symptoms  have  abated  the  following  bitter  tonic  can  be  given;  powdered 
gentian  (one  ounce)  potassium  chlorate  (one  ounce)  bicarbonate  of  soda 
(two  ounces);  mix  and  give  one  teaspoonful  in  the  feed  twice  a day. 

JAUNDICE. 

This  is  not  a disease  in  itself  but  symptom  of  disease,  and  is  called 
jaundice  or  yellows,  because  of  the  yellow  color  of  the  mucuous  mem- 
branes, skin  and  different  connective  tissues  of  the  body.  Jaundice  is 
nearly  always  present  in  sheep  affected  with  the  liver  fluke,  is  quite  com- 
mon in  sheep  affected  with  the  twisted  stomach  worm  and  is  associated 


16 


with  other  parasitic  disease.  Many  cases  are  seen,  too,  at  slaughter 
houses  the  cause  of  which  has  not  been  determined. 

Causes.  Any  conaition  that  may  impede  the  flow  of  bile  toward  the 
intestines  may  cause  jaundice.  Overfeeding,  lack  of  exercise,  gall-stones 
and  concretions  in  the  gall  duct  are  common  causes.  When  sheep  are 
allowed  to  pasture  on  rich  grass  lands,  the  liver  sometimes  becomes  af- 
fected and  jaundice  is  seen  as  a symptom  of  this  condition.  The  disease 
has  been  known  to  occur  among  sheep  kept  in  low,  damp  undrained  pas- 
tures. Jaundice  is  a symptom  of  a disease  caused  by  a toxic  substance 
contained  in  lupines. 

Symptoms.  The  different  tissues  of  the  body  are  tinged  with  yellow, 
caused  by  the  interference  with  the  secretion  of  the  bile  from  the  liver 
and  its  reabsorption  by  the  blood,  from  which  it  is  deposited  in  the  dif- 
ferent connective  tissues  of  tne  body.  In  the  simplest  form,  the  sheep  has 
a slow  pulse,  is  languid  and  sleepy,  the  appetite  is  irregular  and  the 
bowels  constipated. 

Treatment.  When  the  disease  is  caused  by  faulty  hygenic  condi- 
tions, they  should  be  corrected  if  possible.  A changed  diet  is  always  ad- 
visable. To  cause  free  movement  of  the  bowel  three  or  four  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts  can  be  given  in  a drench,  or  in  chronic  cases,  calomel  in  ten 
grain  doses  repeated  every'two  or  three  days  if  necessary.  A liberal  al- 
lowance of  common  salt  is  said  to  be  a preventive.  If  the  sneep  is  weak 
a tonic  can  be  given  of  powdered  gentian  (one  ounce),  sulphate  of  soda 
(two  ounces),  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  (two  ounces);  mix  and  give  one 
teaspoonful  in  the  feed  two  or  three  times  a day.  , 

PERITON'ITIS.  INFLAMMATION  OP  THE  LINING  MEMBRANE  OF 

THE  ABDOMEN. 

Causes.  Peritonitis  may  follow  as  a result  of  castration.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  it  to  occur  as  a complication  of  a difficult  birth  or  an  in- 
flammation of  an  internal  organ.  Exposure,  poor  care,  blows  or  wounds 
on  the  abdominal  wall,  and  a rupture  of  the  stomach,  intestines  or  womb 
may  cause  this  disease. 

Symptoms.  The  most  prominent  symptom  is  pain.  The  sheep  moves 
stiffly,  the  hind  limbs  are  dragged,  the  back  arched  and  the  abdominal  wall 
is  held  as  rigid  as  possible.  Pressure  on  the  abdominal  wall  causes 


17 


pain.  The  body  temperature  will  vary.  In  some  cases  there  is  no  eleva- 
tion of  temperature  in  others  it  is  quite  high.  The  sheep  may  be  consti- 
pated or  have  a diarrhea.  When  fluid  is  present  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
we  can  detect  it.  by  placing  the  ear  against  the  wall  and  listening  to  the 
abdominal  sounds.  The  prognosis  is  not  very  favorable.  The  animal 
may  die  in  a few  days.  When  the  disease  is  prolonged  for  several  weeks 
it  ends  in  a chronic  peritonitis.  In  favorable  cases  the  symptoms  gradu- 
ally subside  and  recovery  takes  place  in  a week  or  ten  days. 

Lesions  The  peritoneum  is  inflamed  and  there  is  an  exudate  in  the 
abdominal  cavity.  This  may  contain  fibrin  or  pus  and  may  have  a disa- 
greeable odor.  Different  internal  organs  may  take  part  in  the  inflamma- 
tion. 

Treatment.  Preventive  measures  consist  in  using  the  proper  anti- 
septic precautions  when  castrating  sheep  and  not  operating  on  the  lambs 
when  young.  The  sheep  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible,  given  good 
quarters  and  care  and  fed  nothing  but  easily  digestible  food.  To  clean 
out  the  intestines  and  remove  the  bacteria  which  becomes  a source  of 
danger,  a laxative  must  be  given  and  injections  frequently  used.  Mucila- 
genous  drinks  are  advisable.  To  relieve  the  pain  the  following  is 
useful:  laudanum  (one  ounce),  and  linseed  oil  (three  ounces);  mix  and 
give  half  a tablespoonful  every  three  or  four  hours.  To  relieve  the  in- 
flammation and  lessen  the  pain,  hot  water  fomentations  or  ammonia 
water  can  be  applied  to  the  abdominal  wall.  In  cases  having  high  tem- 
peratures, it  is  best  to  give  the  following  febrifuge:  acetaniled  (one 

ounce),  quinine  sulphate  (one  ounce),  and  powdered  mix  vomica  (one  half 
ounce);  mix  and  divide  into  twelve  powders;  give  one  powuer  every  three 
or  four  hours.  To  relieve  the  diarrhea  and  fermentation  in  the  Intestines 
the  following  can  be  used:  subnitrate  of  bismuth  (one  ounce),  salol  (one 

and  one-half  ounces),  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  (three  ounces);  mix  and 
give  in  one  or  two  teaspoonful  doses  every  three  or  four  hours. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS. 

ACUTE  CONGESTION  OF  THE  KIDNEYS. 

Causes.  During  the  course  of  some  contagious  diseases  the  kidneys 


2 


18 


may  become  the  seat  of  inflammatory  process.  Food  containing  toxic  ele- 
ments, irritating  drugs  and  cold  are  common  causes. 

Symptoms.  Tne  sheep  lags  behind  the  flock  and  is  often  seen  lying 
down.  The  back  is  arched,  the  loins  tender,  the  gait  stiff  and  straddling 
and  frequently  it  strains  and  passses  bloody  colored  urine.  As  the  disease 
advances  the  animal  becomes  weak,  dull  and  stupid  and  when  it  walks, 
the  gait  is  uncertain  and  it  frequently  stumbles.  Death  may  take  place  in 
about  a week.  If  the  disease  is  mild  recovery  usually  occurs  in  a tew 
days. 

Lesions.  The  kidneys  are  reddened  and  larger  than  normal;  the 
kidney  tissue  becomes  friable  and  in  some  cases  almost  like  pulp. 

Treatment.  A sudden  change  from  a dry  diet  to  grass  early  in  the 
spring  should  be  avoided  by  feeding  the  sheep  a little  roughness  or 
grain  the  first  few  days  they  are  turned  out.  Irritating  drugs  whether 
applied  to  the  skin  or  given  internally  must  be  used  cautiously.  After  the 
disease  has  developed  the  animal  must  be  given  good,  nourishing  food 
and  comfortable  quarters.  Plenty  of  oil  or  flaxseed  meal  is  a very  use- 
ful food  in  this  disease.  The  bowels  must  be  kept  loose  by  feeding  laxa- 
tive food  or  by  frequent  doses  of  castor  oil.  The  following  preparation 
can  be  given;  powdered  mix  vomica  ,one  ounce),  sulphate  of  quinine  (one 
ounce),  salol  (one  half  ounce);  mix  and  give  in  teaspoonful  doses  three 
times  a day. 

INPLAMiMATION  OF  THE  KIDNEYS.  ACUTE  NEPHRITIS.  BRIGHT’S 

DISEASE. ' 

Causes.  Congestion  of  the  kidneys  may  terminate  in  an  inflamma- 
tion. The  common  causes  of  nephritis  are  similar  to  those  causing  a con- 
gestion of  these  organs. 

Symptoms,  pain  is  not  as  prominent  a symptom  of  this  disease  in 
sheep  as  in  other  domestic  animals.  There  may  be  considerable  fever  and 
a weak  pulse.  The  urine  is  passed  in  small  amounts  and  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. Toward  the  latter  stage  of  the  disease,  the  urine  may  be  tinged 
with  blood  and  the  animal  have  convulsions.  Unless  the  inflammation 
terminates  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  dilferent  organs  of  the  body 
become  affected.  . 

Lesions.  The  kidneys  are  enlarged,  mottled,  of  a red  or  yellowish 
color.  Large  abscesses  sometimes  form  in  the  kidney  tissue. 


19 


Treatment.  The  sick  sheep  must  be  given  comfortable  quarters.  Mu- 
cilaginous drinks  are  indicated.  Counterirritants  in  the  form  of  hot  com- 
presses to  the  loins  will  help  in  relieving  the  pain  and  inflammation.  We 
must  help  in  getting  rid  of  the  waste  products  formed  in  the  body  by  the 
use  of  purgatives  and  diuretics.  As  a diuretic,  bicarbonate  of  soda  (one 
teaspoonful)  and  iodide  of  potassium  (twenty  grains)  can  be  given  in  the 
drinking  water  two  or  three  times  a day.  Castor  oil  can  be  given  to 
keep  the  bowels  lax.  The  same  tonic  recommended  in  congestion  of  the 
kidneys  can  be  given. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

Causes.  Irritating  drugs  (cantharides,  turpentine,  etc.)  when  given 
in  large  doses  may  be  present  in  the  urine  in  large  enough  amounts  to  ir- 
ritate and  inflame  the  lining  membrane  of  the  bladder.  Irritation  due 
to  retention  of  the  urine  and  exposure  to  cold  may  also  cause  it. 

Symptoms.  The  body  temperature  may  be  higher  than  normal.  The 
sheep  walks  stiffly,  strains  frequently  .and  passes  a small  amount  of  urine. 
The  lining  membrane  of  the  bladder  is  inflamed  and  thickened.  In 
advanced  cases  due  to  the  shedding  of  the  epithelium,  there  may  be  large 
raw  surfaces  on  the  membrane. 

Treatment.  Irritating  drugs  should  not  be  used  in  a careless  manner. 
If  due  to  retention  of  the  urine  the  cause  must  be  removed  if  possible. 
The  medicinal  treatment  consists  in  administering  the  remedies  that  will 
modify  the  inflammation.  Mucilaginous  drinks  are  indicated  and  the 
sheep  should  be  kept  quiet  and  the  bowels  lax.  The  following  can  be 
given;  salol  (one-half  ounce),  powdered  mix  vomica  (one  ounce),  and 
chlorate  of  potassium  (one  and  one-half  ounces) ; mix  and  give  in  tea- 
spoonful doses,  in  the  feed  twice  a day. 

RETENTION  OF  URINE. 

This  is  not  a disease  in  itself  but  a symptom  of  disease,  and  is  more 
common  in  the  male  than  in  the  female. 

Causes.  The  causes  of  retention  of  the  urine  are  as  follows:  foreign 
bodies  in  the  bladder  (calculi),  sediment  in  the  S curvature  of  the  urethra 
of  the  ram,  pressure  on  the  urethra  by  a tumor,  inflammation  of  the 
sheath,  displacement  of  the  uterus,  paralysis  of  the  bladder,  general 
weakness  and  infrequent  urination.  The  feeding  of  a large  ration  of  roots 
will  also  cause  the  trouble  especially  in  males. 


20 


Symptoms.  The  sheep  refuse  to  eat,  is  drowsy  and  weak.  Fre- 
quently strains  and  tries  to  urinate,  but  no  urine  is  passed.  Sometimes 
the  urine  runs  off  drop  by  drop.  If  not  relieved  the  bladder  is  ruptured, 
or  the  blood  becomes  charged  with  poisonous  substances  and  the  disease 
terminates  fatally,  uraemia. 

Treatment.  If  a calculus  is  present  in  the  bladder  it  must  be  removed 
if  possible.  In  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  morphine  or  belladonna 
can  be  given,  and  when  paralyzed,  it  is  necessary  to  pass  the  catheter  fre- 
quently. If  due  to  an  inflamed  prepuce,  the  part  must  be  washed  with 
warm  water  and  castile  soap,  and  vaseline  applied  to  the  part. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 


COLD.  CATARRH.  CORYZA. 

Causes.  This  affection  is  due  principally  to  exposure  to  cold,  rainy 
weather,  and  in  some  years,  is  very  prevalent.  Too  early  clipping  may 
also  be  a cause.  Confinement  in  basements  of  barns  without  sufficient 
ventilation  will  produce  it.  Coryza  is  sometimes  caused  by  the  larva  of 
the  sheep  bot  fly. 

Symptoms.  The  membrane  lining  the  anterior  air  passages  is  irritat- 
ed, reddened  and  inflamed  and  the  sheep  sneezes  frequently  Or  has  a slight 
cough.  During  the  early  stage  of  the  inflammation,  the  nasal  membrane 
is  red  and  dry.  It  soon  becomes  moist,  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils 
is  watery  at  first,  in  a short  time  may  be  changed  to  a heavy  white  floccu- 
lent,  purulent  fluid.  The  mucuous  membrane  of  the  eye  may  take  part  in 
the  inflammation;  sometimes  a slight  fever  accompanies  the  cold.  If  the 
discharge  persists  the  animal  becomes  emaciated.  If  the  attack  is  severe 
and  the  exposure  continues,  the  inflammation  may  extend  to  other  parts 
of  the  respiratory  track.  The  prognosis  is  usually  favorable. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  measures  consist  in  providing  the  flock  with 
good,  clean,  dry  and  well  ventilated  quarters,  when  necessary  and  wait- 
ing until  a favorable  season  before  clipping  them.  Usually,  good  quarters  is 
all  the  treatment  required  for  the  sick  animals.  Steaming  the  sheep  will 
relieve  the  irritated  membranes.  The  steaming  should  be  kept  up  for 
about  half  an  hour  and  repeated  two  or  three  times  a day.  Eerly  in  the 


21 


attack,  a laxative  can  be  given,  and  if  necessary,  febrifuges.  Liquor  am- 
monia acetate  is  sometimes  given  in  half  ounce  doses  every  few  hours.  A 
nourishing,  easily  digested  diet  will  be  of  much  benefit.  If  due  to  bot  fly 
larva,  the  only  successful  treatment  is  to  trephine  into  the  sinuses  of  the 
head  and  remove  the  parasites.  If  the  catarrh  develops  early  in  the  fall 
and  the  sheep  are  in  good  condition;  they  may  be  turned  over  to  the 
butcher,  if  in  the  spring,  good  food  with  grain  will  carry  them  through 
until  the  fly  comes  away. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LARYNX  AND  PHARYNX. 

SORE  THROAT. 

Causes.  Sore  throat  may  occur  independently  of  simple  catarrh,  but 
more  commonly  is  seen  as  a complication  of  that  disease.  Exposure  to 
frequent  colds,  changes  in  climate,  wet,  chilly  weather  and  such  unsani- 
tary surroundings  as  hot,  close,  dirty  buildings  are  common  causes  of  sore 
throat. 

Symptoms.  When  caused  by  the  inflammation  spreading  from  the 
nasal  cavities  to  the  larynx  and  throat  the  early  symptoms  are  the  same 
as  described  in  cold  in  the  head.  When  the  throat  becomes  inflamed, 
however,  the  cough  is  harder  and  more  troublesome.  Pressure  over  the 
outside  of  the  region  causes  the  animal  pain  and  provokes  coughing.  In 
severe  cases  the  throat  is  swollen,  saliva  dribbles  from  the  mouth  and  the 
sheep  is  unable  to  take  food.  If  the  nostrils  become  plugged  by  the  secre- 
tions the  animal  breathes  through  its  mouth.  Ordinarily,  recovery  occurs 
in  one  or  two  weeks. 

Treatment.  The  ventilation  of  the  sleeping  quarters  must  be  looked 
after  carefully.  The  sheep  house  must  be  clean,  free  from  draughts  ana 
not  over-crowded.  The  same  treatment  used  in  cold  in  the  head  is  indi- 
cated in  this  disease;  easily  digested  feed,  laxatives,  hot  water  inhala- 
tions, and  feorifuges.  After  the  first  few  days,  the  wool  on  the  throat 
can  be  clipped  off  and  the  following  liniment  applied:  spirits  of  turpen- 

tine, aqua  ammonia  and  linseed  oil  (equal  parts  of  each);  mix  and  rub  on 
the  throat  once  a day. 


22 


BRONCHITIS.  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRONCHIAL  TUBES. 

Causes.  Bronchitis  is  more  often  seen  in  the  spring  and  early  fall 
than  at  *any  other  season  of  the  year  and  may  exist  as  a regular  enzootic 
among  sheep.  The  same  conditions  giving  rise  to  cold  in  the  head  ana 
sore  throat  may  cause  bronchitis,  or  it  may  occur  as  a complication  of 
some  of  the  infectious  diseases. 

Symptoms.  The  sheep  is  depressed  and  feverish,  the  eyes  watery 
and  visible  mucous  membranes  reddened.  The  cough  is  hard  and  dry 
and  usually  there  is  a mucuous  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  If  we  place 
the  ear  to  the  walls  of  the  chest  we  hear  louder  bronchial  sounds  than 
normal.  In  the  croupous  form  of  bronchitis  the  respirations  are  more 
noisy  and  labored  and  disponea  may  occur.  When  the  disease  is  mild 
the  symptoms  are  not  marked,  recovery  takes  place  in  a few  days.  Unless 
complications  occur  the  prognosis  is  favorable. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  for  common  cold  is  usually  sufficient.  A 
cathartic  of  Epsom  salts  (three  or  four  ounces)  can  be  given.  In  the 
early  stages  of  the  disease  febrifuges  and  expectorants  should  be  given 
in  order  to  lower  the  body  temperature  and  stimulate  the  secretions  of 
the  inflamed  mucous  membranes.  The  following  can  be  given:  liquor 
ammonia  acetate  in  half  ounce  doses  every  three  or  four  hours;  or  potas- 
sium bicarbonate  (seven  drams),  ammonia  carbonate  (seven  drams),  and 
powdered  digitalis  (one  half  dram);  mix  and  divide  into  eight  powders; 
give  one  powder  three  times  a day. 

CROUPOUS  PNEUMONIA. 

Causes.  Too  warm  buildings,  heavy  fleeces  and  sudden  plethora  pre- 
dispose sheep  to  pneumonia.  It  may  follow  as  a complication  of  bronchi- 
tis. A common  cause  of  pneumonia  is  dipping  and  shearing  during 
changable  seasons  of  the  year.  Catarrhal  pneumonia  is  usually  due  to 
the  lung  worm  of  sheep. 

Symptoms.  The  disease  generally  takes  a very  acute  form.  The 
body  temperature  is  high;  the  pulse  and  respirations  quickened;  nostrils 
dilated  and  the  breathing  labored,  causing  the  flanks  to  heave.  The  sheep 
eats  and  ruminates  irregularly  or  not  at  all,  has  a painful  cough  and  a 
distressed  anxious  look.  If  the  disease  is  going  to  terminate  unfavorably 
the  breathing  becomes  more  difficult,  the  animal  stands  in  one  position 
with  the  head  extended  and  the  nostrils  dilated.  When  the  disease  takes 


23 


an  unfavorable  turn,  the  respiratory  sounds  are  deadened  and  the  pulse 
rapid  and  almost  imperceptible.  In  sheep  pneumonia  does  not  run  through 
the  different  stages  as  in  some  of  the  other  domestic  animals.  Death 
sometimes  occurs  in  the  first  stage,  the  period  of  engorgement. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  avoiding  such  con- 
ditions as  may  cause  the  disease.  When  the  pneumonia  sets  in  the  sick 
animal  must  be  provided  with  comfortable,  clean,  well-ventilated  quar- 
ters and  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  are 
manifested  a laxative  of  castor  oil  (two  or  three  ounces),  or  in  strong 
plethoric  animals  a purgative  of  Epsom  salts  (four  ounces  in  warm  gruel) 
can  be  given.  The  diet  should  be  light  and  easily  digested.  The  follow- 
ing febrifuges  can  be  given:  liquor  ammonia  acetate  in  half  ounce  doses 
every  three  or  four  hours;  or  acetanilid  (one  and  one-half  ounces),  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  (one  ounce),  and  powdered  mix  vomica  (two  drams);  mix 
and  divide  into  eight  powders;  one  powder  can  be  given  in  a drench  every 
four  hours.  As  a counterirritant  to  the  walls  of  the  chest  aqua  ammonia 
can  be  used. 

PLEURISY,  INFLAMATION  OF  THE  LINING  MEMBRANE  OF  THE 

CHEST. 

Causes.  Pleurisy  may  occur  as  a complication  of  pneumonia,  the 
inflammation  extending  from  the  lungs  to  the  pleural  membrane.  Clipped 
' sheep,  or  sheep  that  have  lost  w'ool  as  a result  of  scab  if  not  sheltered  or 
protected  during  the  changeable  seasons  of  the  year  are  subject  to  pleuri- 
sy. Washing  and  dipping  during  the  cold  weather  or  injuries  to  the  chest 
sometimes  cause  it.  Rheumatic  affections  may  be  accompanied  by  pleu- 
risy. / 

Symptoms.  The  general  symptoms  are  as  follows:  high  fever,  quick, 
small  pulse,  quickened  respirations  (the  expiration  being  prolonged  and 
the  inspiration  short  and  arrested),  appetite  impaired,  rumination  sus- 
pended. The  animal  holds  the  walls  of  the  chest  as  rigid  as  possible  and 
when  the  spaces  between  the  ribs  (inter  costal  spaces)  are  pressed  upon  it 
causes  pain.  The  cough  is  short,  dry  and  on  account  of  the  pain  suffered 
whenever  the  ribs  are  moved,  it  is  suppressed  as  must  as  possible.  In  the 
first  stage  of  the  disease  when  we  listen  to  the  respiratory  sounds,  friction 
sounds  are  heard,  due  to  the  dried,  inflamed  membranes  rubbing  against 
each  other  whenever  the  animal  breathes.  Later  these  sounds  disappear 


24 


and  we  may  be  able  to  detect  fluid  in  the  pleural  cavity  (hydrothorax.) 

Treatment.  The  same  preventive  measures  and  the  same  general 
line  of  treatment  laid  down  in  pneumonia  is  indicated  here.  After  the 
first  day  or  two,  aqua  ammonia  and  linseed  oil  can  be  applied  to  the 
walls  of  the  chest  by  parting  the  wool  and  applying  it  in  lines.  If  there 
is  a collection  of  fluid  in  the  chest  cavity  and  the  heart  action  is  weak, 
the  following  preparation  can  be  given:  tincture  of  digitalis  (one  ounce), 
iodide  of  potassium  (one  ounce),  and  enough  water  to  make  eight  ounces. 
One  tablespoonful  can  be  given  every  four  hours.  In  instances  where  the 
sheep  cannot  receive  careful  attenuon  a little  nitrate  of  potassium  can  be 
given  in  the  drinking  water. 

HYDROTHORAX.  FLUID  IN  THE  CHEST  CAVITY. 

Causes.  This  is  a common  complication  of  pleurisy.  If  the  flow  of 
blood  in  the  large  veins  is  impeded  or  if  there  is  organic  heart  or  chronic 
kidney  trouble  present,  this  disease  may  occur  independently  of  any  In- 
flammation. When  this  is  the  case,  dropsical  swellings  are  present  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 

Symptoms.  In  pleurisy,  when  the  acute  symptoms  subside  quickly,  it 
indicates  a collection  of  fluid  in  the  chest  cavity.  If  but  a small  collection 
of  fluid  is  present  the  pain  is  lessened,  but  if  it  forms  in  large  amounts  it 
presses  on  the  lungs  and  heart,  seriously  interfering  with  the  functions  of 
these  organs.  By  placing  the  ear  to  the  side  of  the  chest  the  fluid  can  be 
detected.  When  the  ear  is  applied  to  ihe  lower  part  of  the  chest  walls  no 
respiratory  sounds  are  heard,  but  if  applied  high  up  the  sounds  may  be 
normal.  The  exudate  in  the  thoracic  cavity  is  not  always  the  same  in 
character.  It  may  be  of  yellow,  citron  or  red  color,  grayish  or  muddy  if  it 
contains  pus  or  flbrin,  and  clear,  limpid,  or  transparent  if  a true  dropsical 
efliusion.  Dropsical  swellings  may  be  present  in  different  parts  of  the 
body. 

Treatment.  The  sheep  must  be  given  good  care.  Counter- irritation 
to  the  chest  walls,  as  in  pleurisy  is  indicated.  If  constipated,  a cathartic 
must  be  given.  To  help  get  rid  of  the  effusion,  the  following  prescription 
may  be  given:  tincture  of  digitalis  (one  ounce),  iodide  of  potassium 

(one  ounce),  fluid  extract  of  gentian  (one  ounce),  and  enough  water  to 
make  eight  ounces;  mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful  three  times  a day. 


25 


When  the  sheep  begins  to  improve  one  teaspoonful  of  iron  sulphate  can 
be  given  in  the  feed  two  or  three  times  a day.  In  bad  cases,  tapping  the 
chest  and  drawing  off  the  fluid  by  means  of  the  trocar  and  canula  is  tne 
only  successful  treatment. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  HEART  AND  ITS  MEMBRANES. 

Causes.  Sharp  objects  as  needles,  wire,  nails,  etc.,  that  are  taken  into 
the  stomach  along  with  the  food  and  finally  pass  through  the  walls  of 
the  stomach  and  injure  the  heart  and  its  coverings  are  common  causes. 
Pericarditis  (an  inflammation  of  the  coverings  of  the  heart)  and  endo-car- 
ditis  (an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  heart)  are  some- 
times seen  in  rheumatic  diseases.  Pericarditis  may  occur  as  a complica- 
tion of  pleurisy,  the  inflammation  extending  from  the  pleural  membrane 
to  the  pericardium. 

Symptoms.  When  caused  by  foreign  bodies  penetrating  the  pericar- 
dial sack  from  the  stomach,  symptoms  of  indigestion  may  precede  the 
cardiac  symptoms.  The  most  prominent  symptom  is  pain.  The  pulse 
beats  are  irregular,  the  temperature  elevated,  and  the  sheep  weak.  The 
expression  is  anxious  and  denotes  suffering,  the  animal  does  not  lie  down 
and  may  remain  in  one  position  for  some  time.  By  placing  the  ear  just 
over  the  region  of  the  heart  we  may  be  able  to  detect  the  heart  sounds. 
If  no  fluid  is  present  in  the  pericardial  sack  we  sometimes  hear  friction 
sounds;  if  fluid  is  present,  fluid  sounds.  In  endocarditis  we  may  hear  a 
blowing  sound.  In  the  beginning  of  the  disease  the  heart  beats  are  strong, 
palpitating  and  bounding  and  the  breathing  is  difficult  and  distressed. 
The  general  condition  is  soon  changed  and  the  sheep  becomes  thin  and 
weak.  The  prognosis  is  very  unfavorable. 

Treatment.  When  the  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  of  foreign  bodies 
no  curative  treatment  can  be  given.  The  sheep  should  be  given  a cathar- 
tic of  Epsom  salts  (three  ounces).  To  regulate  the  action  of  the  heart 
belladonna  or  digitalis  can  be  given  at  short  intervals  and  when  recovery 
oegins,  bitter  tonics.  The  animal  must  be  kept  (piiet  and  as  comfortaLiP 
as  possible. 


26 


PALPITATION.  THUMPS. 

Causes.  'Palpation  is  generally  seen  in  animals  that  are  in  a weak^ 
anaemic,  bloodless  condition  and  appears  under  the  slightest  exciting 
circumstances.  In  acute  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  heart  or.  its  mem- 
branes, palpitation  is  generally  a prominent  symptom. 

Symptoms.  When  the  palpitation  is  due  to  a weak  anemic  condition, 
the  animal  is  emaciated^  the  skin  and  mucuous  membranes  pale  and  there 
may  be  local  dropsical  effusions  in  different  parts  of  the  body.  In  these 
cases  the  palpitation  depends  on  some  excitement  and  is  regular,  the 
jerking  of  the  muscles  in  the  region  of  the  flank  corresponding  as  a rule 
to  the  heart  beat.  Abnormal  heart  sounds  are  absent. 

Treatment.  Keep  the  sheep  quiet  and  avoid  exiciting  it.  When  asso- 
ciated with  anaemia,  bitter  tonics  should  be  given  along  with  good  nour- 
ishing food.  One  teaspoonful  of  iron  sulphate  can  be  given  in  the  feed 
twice  a day.  The  following  prescription  is  useful:  fluid  extract  of  gen- 
tian (one  ounce),  tincture  of  digitalis  (two  drams),  and  enough  water  to- 
make  eight  ounces;  mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful  three  times  a day. 

ORGANIC  DISEASES  OP  THE  HEART. 

The  short  term  of  life  and  the  method  of  handling  sheep  make  such  or- 
ganic heart  troubles  as  fatty  degeneration,  enlargement,  dilation  and  val- 
vular diseases  of  the  heart  quite  rare.  In  old  overfed,  pampered  sheep, 
and  those  fitted  for  show  purposes  the  fat  may  accumulate  in  and  around 
the  heart  muscles,  replacing  the  muscular  tissue  and  interfering  with  the 
action  of  the  organ.  Dilation  of  one  or  both  sides  of  the  heart  may  ac- 
company fatty  degeneration.  In  these  cases  the  sheep  should  be  kept  quiet 
and  the  forcing  system  of  feeding  abandoned  or  the  animal  sold  to  the- 
butcher  as  soon  as  possible. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


ENCEPHALITIS.  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Causes.  Injuries  to  the  brain  due  to  blows  on  the  head  from  a whip 
or  club,  or  to  the  sheep  fighting  among  themselves  may  cause  it.  Over- 
feeding with  grains  or  feeds  rich  in  albumenoids  or  proteids  (peas,  beans,. 


27 


cotton  seed,  gluten,  oil  meal,  etc.,)  unhygenic  surroundings  (close,  damp, 
poorly  ventilated  quarters)  and  violent  exertion  during  the  hot  weather 
are  common  causes.  Spoiled  fodders  and  grains  that  are  mouldy,  or 
contain  smut  and  microbes  are  probable  factors  in  inflammation  of  the 
brain.  Certain  substances,  containing  narcotic  substances,  as  intoxicating 
rye  grass  will  sometimes  cause  it.  The  larva  of  the  oestrus  ovis  or  grub 
of  sheep  will  when  present  in  or  on  the  surface  of  the  brain  irritate  and 
inflame  it. 

Symptoms.  The  sheep  is  often  drowsy,  stupid  and  disinclined  to 
move,  the  head  is  hot,  carried  upwards  or  to  one  side,  the  eyes  flxed, 
rolled  up  and  reddened,  the  pupils  dilated  and  the  gait  stiff  and  stagger- 
ing. The  sheep  may  be  excited,  charge  objects,  work  the  jaws,  froth  at 
the  mouth  and  bleat.  When  excited  the  respirations  and  pulse  are  usual- 
ly rapid.  Sometimes  it  is  seen  with  its  head  pushed  against  the  wall  or 
lying  by  itself  with  the  head  low  or  turned  backwards.  Finally  paralysis 
sets  in.  The  prognosis  is  very  unfavorable. 

Treatment.  If  the  disease  is  due  to  unhygienic  conditions,  spoiled 
foods,  or  a faulty  ration,  the  cause  must  be  removed  or  a number  of  the 
flock  may  become  affected.  As  soon  as  any  of  their  number  take  sick,  a 
purgative  of  Epsom  salts  (from  four  to  six  ounces)  should  be  given  to  the 
whole  flock.  The  sick  animal  or  animals  must  be  kept  in  a cool,  quiet 
place,  and  cold  in  the  form  of  wet  cloths  or  ice  applied  to  the  head  as 
long  as  it  feels  hot.  When  excited  and  feverish,  acetanilid  in  one  dram 
doses  should  be  given,  or  chloral  hydrate  in  one  or  two  dram  doses  every 
four  hours.  As  soon  as  possible,  in  order  to  restore  tone  to  the  nervous 
tissue  the  following  can  be  given;  iodide  of  potassium  (one  ounce),  fluid 
extract  of  nux  vomica  (six  drams),  and  enough  water  to  make  eight 
ounces;  mix  and  give  half  an  ounce  three  times  a day.  When  sick  and 
during  the  convalescent  stage,  the  bowels  should  be  kept  lax  and  the  ani- 
mal fed  an  easily  digestible  ration. 

HDROCEPHALUS.  DROPSY*  OR  WATER  IN  THE  VENTRICLES  OF 

THE  BRAIN. 

This  disease  is  frequently  seen  in  lambs,  many  times  they  are  born 
with  it,  the  head  being  so  enlarged  that  delivery  is  quite  difficult.  If 
this  is  the  case  the  lamb  is  generally  dead,  or  if  alive,  rarely  lives  more 
than  a few  days. 


28 


Causes.  In-breeding  is  said  to  cause  it.  Its  prevalence  in  some  locali- 
ties would  suggest  some  local  influence,  as  the  food  and  water  as  factors 
in  causing  the  disease. 

Symptoms.  The  head  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  rest  of 
the  body.  The  sheep  is  lazy,  dull,  stupid,  the  gait  staggering  ana  uncer- 
tain and  the  animal  is  not  inclined  to  move.  Sometimes  the  disease  is 
complicated  by  digestive  disorders.  Uusally  the  head  is  twisted  on  the 
neck  or  turned  to  one  side. 

Treatment.  If  the  disease  is  caused  by  mistakes  in  breeding,  the 
management  of  the  flock  must  be  changed.  If  to  local  conditions  it  would 
be  advisable  to  move  the  flock  to  another  location.  Medicinal  treatment 
is  of  no  use. 

CEREBRO  SPINAL  MENINGITIS.  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  COV- 
ERINGS OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  SPINAL  CORD. 

Causes.  But  little  is  known  regarding  the  cause  of  this  disease.  It  is 
probably  due  to  several  different  toxic  principles,  but  by  some  it  is 
claimed  to  be  due  to  a specific  cause  (a  germ),  flhe  disease  is  frequently 
seen  in  young  animals,  generally  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

Symptoms.  The  head  feels  hot,  the  mucuous  membranes  are  con- 
gested and  the  pupils  dilated.  The  animal  grinds  its  teeth,  saliva  dribbles 
from  the  mouth,  the  lips  are  contracted,  it  is  weak  and  dull  and  shows  a 
tendency  to  move  in  a circle.  We  soon  And  it  stretched  upon  the  ground 
as  if  paralyzed,  the  head  thrown  back  and  the  muscles  of  the  jaw,  neck  and 
back  rigid.  Sheep  in  this  condition  are  very  sensitive  and  may  have  con- 
vulsions. Death  usually  occurs  in  a few  hours,  or  a few  days,  but  some- 
times it  lives  for  several  weeks.  The  prognosis  is  very  unfavorable. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  that  recommended  in  in- 
flammation of  the  brain.  If  mistakes  in  the  care  and  feeding  of  the  sheep 
exist,  they  should  be  corrected  at  once.  If  a number  of  animals  in  the 
flock  are  affected,  the  sick  should  be  separated  from  the  healthy  ones,  and 
the  sheep  house  and  pens  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

APOPLEXY.  SOFTENING  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Causes.  Any  condition  increasing  blood  pressure  in  the  brain  may 
cause  this  disease.  * In  highly  fed,  pampered  sheep,  excitement,  extreme 
heat  and  over-exertion  may  produce  it.  Mechanical  injuries  may  also  cause 
it.  If  degenerative  changes  occur  in  the  walls  of  the  cerebral  vessels, 


29 


they  become  so  weak  that  the  slightest  increase  in  blood  pressure  will  rup- 
ture them.  Floating  particles  (emboli)  in  the  blood  stream  may  plug  a 
cerebral  vessel,  cutting  off  the  blood  supply  to  a part,  thus  bringing  about 
apoplexy,  not  by  pressure  on  the  nerve  tissue,  but  from  anaemia. 

Symptoms.  As  a rule  the  disease  comes  on  suddenly  without  our  notic- 
ing that  the  sheep  is  sick.  In  the  acute  cases  it  staggers,  falls,  there  is  a 
complete  loss  of  consciousness,  convulsive  movements  of  the  legs  and  in 
a short  time  the  animal  dies.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  dull,  unsteady 
in  its  gait,  or  shows  a tendency  to  move  in  a circle.  The  pulse  is  weak, 
respirations  slow,  labored,  irregular  and  stertorous,  the  visible  mucuous 
membranes  intensely  congested,  eyes  dilated  and  pupils  enlarged,  some- 
times more  in  one  eye  than  the  other.  The  paralysis  may  be  general  or 
involve  only  certain  muscular  groups. 

Treatment.  In  acute  cases,  this  is  very  unsatisfactory.  In  mild  at- 
tacks at  the  outset,  cold  applications  to  the  head  and  bleeding  can  be 
practiced.  The  sheep  must  be  kept  perfectly  quiet.  When  able  to  swal- 
low, a purgative  of  Epsom  salts  (four  to  six  ounces)  can  be  given.  Bro- 
mide of  potassium  should  be  given  in  small  doses  to  keep  down  the  force 
of  the  circulation.  To  help  absorb  the  exudate  or  blood  clot  that  may  be 
present  and  restore  tone  to  the  nerve  tissue  the  following  can  be  given; 
iodide  of  potassium  (one  ounce),  powdered  nux  vomica  (six  drams);  mix 
and  divide  into  twenty  powders;  give  one  powder  three  times  a day.  A 
course  of  vegetable  and  mineral  tonics  together  with  a laxative  diet  is 
advisable  as  soon  as  the  animal  shows  signs  of  improvement. 

EPILEPSY.  FITS. 

Causes.  Epilepsy  may  be  due  to  lesions  in  the  brain,  walls  of  the 
cranium,  or  spinal  cord.  Disorder  in  the  cerebral  circulation  or  such  ab- 
normal conditions  as  are  present  in  uremia,  lead  poisoning,  etc.,  may 
bring  on  this  condition.  In  young  animals  intestinal  parasites  and  irreg- 
ular management  and  feeding  are  common  causes. 

Symptoms.  Epilepsy  will  vary  in  intensity  and  duration,  depending 
on  the  cause.  The  sheep  will  suddenly  stop  ruminating  or  eating,  look 
about  in  a stupid  manner  and  after  turning  or  staggering,  fall  to  the 
ground  and  have  violent  convulsions.  The  fit  may  last  but  a few  sec- 
onds or  minutes,  and  the  animal  will  get  up  pnd  go  to  feeding  as  though 
nothing  had  happened.  Generally,  it  continuea  dull  and  sleepy  for  some 
time. 


30 


Treatment.  If  the  cause  of  the  epilepsy  is  known  and  can  be  re- 
moved, the  treatment  must  be  directed  to  the  cause.  When  a sheep  is  in  a 
fit,  it  should  be  prevented  from  injuring  itself  and  cold  water  dashed  on  the 
head.  Bromide  of  potassium  is  useful  in  treating  epilepsy  and  should  be 
given  in  from  ten  to  thirty  grain  doses  in  a drench,  three  or  four  times 
a day.  Iodide  of  potassium  may  also  be  given.  Out  door  life,  moderate 
exercise  and  bitter  or  iron  tonics  are  very  important. 

PARALYSIS. 

Causes.  Pressure  from  diseased  vertebrae,  tumors  or  abscesses,  and 
growing  parasites  on  the  nerve  tissue  of  the  spinal  cord  or  brain,  will 
cause  a paralysis  of  that  part  of  the  body  that  depends  on  the  injured 
nerve  tissue  for  its  nerve  supply. 

Symptoms.  The  paralysis  may  come  on  suddenly  and  the  symptoms 
manifested  resemble  those  seen  in  inflammation  of  the  spinal  cord  or 
brain.  Generally,  it  comes  on  giadualiy  and  may  involve  a certain  set  «f 
muscles  or  organs,  or  may  be  general  with  the  special  senses  clear.  The 
parts  affected  will  point  to  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  Sensory  troubles,  in- 
creased sensibility  or  loss  of  sensibility,  are  sometimes  present. 

Treatment.  The  sheep  should  be  made  as  comfortable  as  possible 
and  fed  easily  digested  food.  ' To  keep  the  bowels  lax,  it  is  advisable  to 
administer  a laxative  every  few  days.  Nerve  tonics  such  as  strychnine 
(one  thirtieth  of  a grain)  or  powdered  mix  vomica  (thirty  grains)  should 
be  given  in  the  feed  two  or  three  times  a day.  Treatment  is  generally  un- 
successful and  it  is  usually  advisable  to  slaughter  the  animal. 

HEAT  STROKE.  HEAT  EXHAUSTION. 

Heat  exhaustion  generally  follows  violent  exertion  during  the  hot 
weather.  The  symptoms  are  as  follows:  weak,  small  pulse,  general  de- 

pression, muscular  weakness  and  collapse.  The  animal  soon  goes  down, 
is  restless  and  finally  dies. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists ‘in  diffusible  stimulents  (alcohol 
in  half  ounce  doses  every  few  hours)  tincture  of  digitalis  in  teaspoonful 
doses  to  sustain  the  heart  and  cold  douches  on  the  head  and  fore  parts. 
If  the  body  temperature  is  sub-normal,  warm  baths  can  be  given. 

SUN  STROKE 

The  cause  of  sun  stroke  is  exposure  to  severe  summer  heat  and  may 


31 


occur  during  or  after  hard  exercise,  especially  if  the  sheep  is  fat  or  out 
of  condition. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  are  as  follows:  rapid  breathing,  open 
mouth,  reddened,  prominent  eyes,  high  temperature,  unsteady  gait,  con- 
vulsions and  death.  Unless  the  treatment  is  prompt,  the  prognosis  is  un- 
favorable. 

Treatment.  During  warm  weather  conditions  that  may  cause  sun 
stroke  should  be  avoided.  When  a sheep  becomes  affected,  place  it  in  a 
shady  place  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  head,  neck  and  entire  body. 
This  can  be  done  by  placing  the  sheep  in  a tub  or  tank  for  a few  minutes. 
The  medicinal  treatment  is  the  same  as  thatjiseci  in  heat  stroke. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  REPRODUCTIVE  SYSTEM. 


AiiORTION. 

Abortion  occurs  when  the  foetus  is  expelled  twenty  days  before  the 
normal  period.  It  is  not  a common  accident  among  ewes. 

• Causes.  Abortion  may  be  due  to  the  following  causes:  ergotized 
grass,  acrid  plants;  frozen  food  or  water  if  taken  in  large  amounts,  filthy 
water,  indigestible  foods,  or  food  of  a bad  quality.  Injuries  to  the  abdo- 
men, general  diseases,  excitement,  over-exertion  and  fear  or  fright  pro- 
duced by  dogs.  Poorly  cared  for  and  neglected  ewes  may  abort  as  well 
as  extremely  fat  ones. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  will  vary  and  in  some  cases  are  so  trifling 
that  ihe  accident  is  not  noticed  at  the  time.  The  ewe  may,  however,  be- 
come quite  uneasy  and  bleat  continually.  The  genital  organs  are  enlarged, 
a glazy  like  discharge  is  seen  around  the  lips  of  the  vulva  and  sometimes  a 
portion  of  the  foetal  membrane  is  visible.  Soon  after  these  symptoms 
are  manifested,  the  foetus  is  expelled.  If  the  abortion  becomes  complicat- 
ed by  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes,  the  ewe  will  remain  away  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock,  is  dull,  feverish  and  refuses  to  eat.  If  properly 
treated,  these  symptoms  pass  away  in  a short  time.  It  may  lermlnate  in 
an  inflammation  of  the  womb,  l)ut  this  is  not  (common.  The  lamb  is  usual- 
ly dead. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  mainly  preventive  and  consist  in  avoid- 
ing such  conditions  as  may  cause  the  accident.  When  the  maternal  pas- 


32 


sages  are  not  prepared  for  the  entrance  of  the  foetus,  the  ewe  is  in  pain 
and  becomes  very  restless.  The  pain  can  be  relieved  and  the  parts  relaxed 
somewhat  by  hot  applications  to  the  region  of  the  pelvis.  The  ewe  must 
be  given  a good  bed  and  kept  in  a quiet  place  away  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock.  If  weak  a stimulant  (whisky)  can  be  given.  If  the  act  of  parturi- 
tion is  prolonged,  the  necessary  aid  must  be  given  but  it  is  never  best  to 
meddle  too  soon.  If  the  membranes  do  not  come  away  within  a day  or 
two  after  aborting  they  must  be  removed  with  the  hand  and  the  uterus 
and  maternal  passages  washed  with  a watery  solution  of  creolin  (two 
parts  of  creolin  to  ninety-eight  parts  of  water).  We  must  not  neglect 
the  removal  of  the  after  birth  or  its  retention  will  be  followed  by  bad  re- 
sults. 


EVERSION  OF  THE  UTERUS  AND  VAGINA. 

Causes.  It  consists  in  a displacement  of  the  parts,  * in  which 
the  uterus  and  vagina  are  turned  partially  or  completely  inside  out, 
the  everted  portion  of  the  uterus  escaping  through  the  opening  of  the 
neck  of  the  womb  and  projecting  like  a large  tumor  from  between  the 
lips  of  the  vulva. 

Treatment.  The  eversion  must  receive  prompt  attention  or  there  is 
danger  of  the  tissues  becoming  torn,  bruised  or  gangrenous.  The  parts 
must  be  first  cleaned  and  the  swelling  reduced  by  washing  them  with 
a warm  watery  solution  of  creolin.  After  this  has  been  accomplished,  the 
next  step  is  to  replace  them.  The  ewe  should  be  turned  on  her  back  and 
the  hind  parts  elevated  and  the  uterus  and  vagina  returned  to  their  natur- 
al positions.  Strong  stitches  should  next  be  taken  in  the  skin  on  each 
side  of  the  vulva  or  through  its  lips,  and  crossed  in  sucn  a way  as  to 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  displacement.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
stitches  do  not  interfere  with  urination.  If  the  uterus  is  badly  lacerated  or 
gangrenous,  it  can  be  amputated  and  the  ewe  prepared  for  the  butcher. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  VAGINA  AND  UTERUS.  VAGINITIS. 

IMETRITIS. 

Causes  If  during  labor  the  walls  of  the  vagina  or  uterus  become  torn 
or  bruised,  germs  may  enter  and  bring  about  an  inflammation  of  the  parts. 
It  may  follow  retention  and  decomposition  of  the  foetal  membranes.  Dirty 
instruments  and  dirty  hands  at  the  time  of  birth  frequently  carry  disease 


3: 


producing  germs  into  the  uterus.  Conditions  here  are  favorable  for  their 
development  and  may  result  in  a fatal  inflammation  of  tne  parts. 

Symptoms.  The  ewe  is  feverish,  dull  and  weak;  the  appetite  is  im- 
paired and  she  frequently  strains  as  if  to  pass  urine.  There  is  more  or 
less  discharge  from  the  inflamed  parts  and  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
vulva  is  red  and  tumiefled.  These  symptoms  may  pass  off  in  a few  days  or 
become  worse.  The  animal  will  stand  with  the  abdomen  tucked  up  or 
lie  down  most  of  the  time.  The  ewe  may  be  constipated  or  have  a diar- 
rhea, suffer  considerable  pain  and  have  a high  temperature.  The  progno- 
sis is  generally  unfavorable  when  the  disease  takes  a turn  of  this  kind. 
In  some  cases  the  inflammation  becomes  chronic.  It  is  then  called  leu- 
corhoea,  the  principal  symptom  being  the  discharge  from  the  vagina. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  practicing  the 
proper  antiseptic  precautions  at  the  time  of  the  birth  and  removing  the 
foetal  membranes  before  decomposition  has  occurred.  Before  assisting  in 
removal  of  the  foetus  the  hands  and  instruments  must  be  cleaned  by 
washing  the  hands  and  allowing  the  instruments  to  lie  in  a two  per  cent, 
watery  solution  of  creolin.  The  maternal  passages  and  uterus  should  then 
be  washed  with  a similar  antiseptic  solution.  If  the  parts  become  in- 
flamed, they  must  be  washed  daily  and  when  the  animal  is  feverish,  the 
following  febrifuge  can  be  given;  acetanilid  (six  drams),  quinine  sulphate 
(three  drams),  calomel  (one  dram),  powdered  nux  vomica  (two  drams); 
mix  and  divide  into  eight  powders;  give  one  powder  in  a drench  every 
four  hours. 

MAMMITIS  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER. 

Causes.  Congestion  of  the  mammary  glands  is  due  to  various  causes. 
Exposure  to  cold,  bruises  from  the  head  of  the  lamb,  lying  on  stones  or 
on  the  ground  in  damp  folds,  yards  or  pastures,  and  irritation  from 
retained  milk,  are  common  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  udder. 

Symptoms.  In  most  cases  the  inflammation  does  not  cause  the  animal 
much  pain  and  disappears  in  a few  days.  It  may,  however,  if  neglected, 
become  serious.  The  udder  will  then  become  swollen  and  painful,  the  skin 
covering  it  red  and  shiny,  and  later  abscesses  may  form.  The  gland  se- 
cretes but  little  milk  and  it  is  frequently  coagulated  or  contains  pus.  The 
ewe  looses  flesh,  is  feverish  and  has  a poor  appetite. 

Treatment.  In  mild  casees  of  mammitis  but  little  treatment  is  neces- 


3 


sary.  It  is  generally  advisable,  ho^'ever,  to  diet  the  animal.  When  fever- 
ish, a purgative  of  Epsom  salts  (three  or  four  ounces)  should  be  given  In 
a drench.  The  following  ointment  can  be  rubbed  on  the  inflamed  gland 
twice  a day;  vaseline  (four  ounces),  camphor  ointment  (two  ounces),  ex- 
tract of  belladonna  (one  half  ounce) ; or  a linament  of  linseed  oil  (six 
ounces)  and  carbolic  acid  (one  dram)  can  be  used.  When  the  milk  is 
clotted  or  contains  pus,  it  must  be  drained  off  wtih  a teat  siphon  once  or 
twice  a day  and  a two  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin  injected  into  the 
gland.  A convenient,  apparatus  for  this  is  a teat  siphon  with  about  a 
foot  or  two  of  rubber  tubing  attached  and  carrying  a small  glass  funnel  at 
one  end. 

CASTRATION. 

Castration  of  male  lambs  is  best  done  when  the  animal  is  from  two  to 
six  w'eeks  old  and  in  strong,  healthy  lambs,  the  operation  may  be  per- 
formed as  early  as  the  third  day.  Flockmasters  who  allow  the  lambs  to 
become  two  or  three  months  old  usually  suffer  some  loss,  even  when  the 
operation  is  carefully  performed. 

The  operator  should  provide  himself  with  a table,  castrating  knife,  a 
pan  or  pail  containing  an  antiseptic  solution  and  an  assistant,  to  eaten 
and  to  hold  the  lambs.  When  the  knife  is  not  in  use  it  should  be 
dropped  into  the  antiseptic  solution.  The  assistant  catches  the  lamb  and 
holds  it  in  a convenient  position  on  the  table.  The  region  around  the 
scrotum  should  be  washed  with  an  antiseptic,  and  if  covered  with  wool, 
it  should  be  clipped  to  insure  cleanliness.  The  end  of  the  scrotum  is 
then  cut  off  and  each  testicle  in  its  turn  is  drawn  out  with  the  thumb  and 
foreflnger  of  the  left  hand,  until  the  spermatic  cord  is  ruptured.  Some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  pull  out  the  testicle  and  scrape  the  cord  with  the 
edge  of  the  knife  until  it  breaks  off.  After  removing  the  testicles 
if  the  opening  in  the  scrotum  is  small,  it  should  be  enlarged.  This  is  nec- 
esary  as  there  is  danger  of  the  margins  of  the  incision  adhering  before 
the  part  si  healed,  thus  interfering  with  the  draining  off  of  the  pus  and  en- 
'dangering  the  life  of  the  animal.  In  castrating  a buck,  it  is  necessary  to 
conflne  him  in  some  way.  He  should  be  laid  on  his  back  on  me  ground, 
and  the  hind  legs  held  by  an  assistant,  or  tied  in  such  a way  as  to  pre- 
vent his  struggling.  On  account  of  their  being  more  danger  from  hem- 
orrhage, it  is  advisable  to  scrape  the  spermatic  cord  until  it  breaks  or. 


35 


better,  to  cut  it  off  with  an  emasciilator.  Lambs  do  better  if  allowed  to 
run  in  the  pasture.  If  kept  in  the  sheep  house  or  in  a yard,  everything 
should  be  clean  to  avoid  infection  from  germs. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 


SIMPLE  CONJUNCTIVmS.  SORE  EYES. 

Causes.  Conjunctivitis  is  due  to  irritation  from  various  foreign  bodies 
getting  into  the  eye  (dust,  seeds,  pollen,  flies,* etc.)  and  injuries  of  various 
kinds  (blows  from  a whip,  stones,  branches  of  trees,  brush,'  etc.)  Gener- 
al diseases,  cold  winds  and  wet  weather  may  also  cause  it. 

Symptoms.  The  eye  is  held  more  or  less  closed,  especially  if  the  light 
is  bright.  The  discharge  is  at  first  watery,  but  soon  becomes  heavier  and 
more  pus  like  and  adheres  to  the  margins  of  the  lids.  The  conjunctiva  is 
inflamed,  thickened,  red  and  swollen.  The  cornea  usually  takes  part  in 
the  inflammation  and  when  it  does,  it  looks  white  and  opaque  and  the 
blood-vessels  around  its  margins  often  become  quite  prominent.  The  in- 
flammation may  extend  to  the  deeper  layers  of  the  eye.  Recovery  gen- 
erally takes  place  in  about  a week. 

Treatment.  If  any  foreign  body  is  present,  it  should  be  removed  and 
the  eye  washed  with  an  antiseptic  or  astringent  lotion.  If  the  lids  are 
wounded,  it  may  be  necesary  to  use  hot  or  cold  water  applications  in  or- 
der to  keep  down  the  inflammation.  The  following  eye  lotion  can  be 
dropped  under  the  lids  with  a medicine  dropper  or  applied  once  or  twice 
daily.  Boric  acid  (thirty  grains),  sulphate  of  zinc  (fifteen  grains),  and 
distilled  water  (three  ounces).  Equal  parts  of  boracic  acid  and  calomel 
by  weight  may  be  blown  into  the  eye  with  an  insect  powder  blower. 

ENZOOTIC  OPT  HAL  MI  A. 

Causes.  The  direct  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  known.  By  most 
investigators,  it  is  held  to  be  of  an  infectious  nature,  but  some  attribute 
it  to  irritating  pollen  or  soil.  The  disease  is  spread  by  diseased  sheep 
coming  in  contact  with  healthy  ones  and  in  a short  time  will  affect  a 
large  number  of  animals  in  a neighborhood.  Low,  damp,  land;  and  level 
prairies  seem  to  favor  the  development  of  the  disease.  Dust  and  pollen 
may  act  as  carriers  of  the  germ. 

Symptoms.  At  first  the  eyes  are  closed  and  there  is  an  abundant 
secretion  of  tears.  This  is  followed  by  a heavy  pus  like  secretion.  The 


36 


lids  are  inflamed,  red  and  swollen,  the  cornea  opaque  and  thickened.  Ul- 
cers may  form  on  the  cornea  and  the  eye  ball  become  milky  white  and 
hard.  Usually  at  the  beginning  of  the  disease  the  body  temperature  is 
elevated  and  there  is  a partial  or  complete  loss  of  appetite.  When 
properly  treated  but  few  of  the  sheep  go  blind  and  recovery  occurs  in  a 
short  time. 

Treatment.  It  is  best  to  separate  the  sick  from  the  healthy  sheep. 
The  affected  sheep  should  be  given  cool,  dark  quarters  and  the  eyes 
cleaned  daily  by  bathing  them  with  warm  water.  Following  this,  calomel 
and  boric  acid  of  equal  parts  by  weight  should  be  blown  directly  into  the 
eye  with  a powder  blower.  If  a large  number  in  the  flock  are  affected 
and  suitable  quarters  cannot  be  provided,  treatment  with  the  powder 
alone  is  followed  by  good  results. 


. ECZEMA. 

Eczema,  of  non-parasitic  origin,  is  not  a common  disease  among 
sheep,  due  to  the  skin  being  so  well  protected  by  the  wool  and  the  abundant 
secretions  of  the  skin.  What  is  commonly  known  as  rain  rot  may  be 
seen  in  sheep  in  poor  condition  and  exposed  to  heavy  cold  rains.  The 
rain  softens  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  irritates  it  and  allows  the  mi- 
crobes to  enter. 

Symptoms.  The  skin  is  red  and  inflamed,  and  vesicles  and  pimples 
form.  The  skin  may  become  covered  by  scabs  and  scruf,  and  the  wool 
shed  in  places.  When  the  weather  improves  and  the  animals  are  kept 
under  more  favorable  conditions,  recovery  takes  place  sponianeously. 

INJURIES  FROM  GRASS. 

A few  years  ago  some  sheep  were  reported  to  be  afflicted  with  a 
strange  skin  disease,  supposed  to  be  due  to  a worm.  The  symptoms  were 
rubbing,  “tagging”  of  the  wool,  lack  of  thrift,  and  death  of  a number 
of  sheep.  The  sheep  were  from  a shipment  received  from  a western 
state.  Upon  examination  it  was  found  that  the  skin  was  badly  pricked 
with  the  awns  or  barbs  from  porcupine  grass.  (Stipa  Spartea.)  The 
awns  had  broken  off  in  lengths  varying  from  one-eighth  to  more  than 
an  inch  in  length  and  left  just  under  the  skin. 


37 


RHEUMATISM. 

Causes.  Rheumatism  is  more  common  during  the  late  autumn  or 
early  spring  than  at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  Sudden  changes  in 
temperature,  cold,  wet  weather,  untimely  shearing,  exposure,  draughts, 
etc.,  seem  to  favor  the  development  of  the  disease.  Different  theories  in 
regard  to  its  cause  are  advanced  by  different  authors.  The  muscles,  ten- 
dons or  joints  may  be  affected. 

Symptoms.  Generally  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  loins  are  affected. 
It  may,  however,  affect  the  neck  or  hind  quarters.  The  gait  is  stiff  and 
the  limbs  are  carried  straight  and  rigid.  When  the  joints  are  affected, 
they  become  swollen,  hot  and  painful  and  the  disease  may  shift  from  one 
to  another.  In  acute  cases  the  body  temperature  is  higher  than  normal, 
the  respirations  quickened  and  the  appetite  lost  or  impaired.  When  the 
disease  takes  on  the  acute  form  the  animal  becomes  emaciated  and  in  a 
short  times  dies. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  measures  consist  in  keeping  the  sheep  in 
comfortable,  dry  quarters,  free  from  draughts.  When  the  rheumatism 
is  localized,  local  treatment  in  the  form  of  liniments  or  blisters  can  be 
used.  Internally  the  following  can  be  given:  salicylate  of  soda  (one 

ounce),  fluid  extract  of  gentian  vone  half  ounce),  and  enough  water  to 
make  eight  ounces;  mix  and  give  half  an  ounce  In  a drench  two  or  three 
times  a day. 

FOOT  ROT. 

Causes.  Splinters  or  other  foreign  bodies  getting  into  the  foot  may 
cause  it.  It  is  common  in  sheep  that  are  moved  from  hilly  into  boggy  or 
low  land  pastures.  Filth,  decomposing  grass,  etc.,  getting  into  the  spaces 
between  the  claws  will  irritate  and  inflame  the  feet.  The  disease  may  be 
due  to  a speciflc  cause  and  is  spread  about  on  the  litter,  pastures,  roads, 
etc.,  by  matter  from  the  feet  of  diseased  sheep.  The  contagious  foot  rot 
frequently  described  is  not  known  in  this  country. 

Symptoms.  The  feet  become  hot,  tender  and  sore.  One  or  more  of 
the  feet  may  be  involved,  the  animal  is  lame  and  frequently  it  is  seen 
grazing  on  its  knees.  The  sheep  falls  away  in  flesh  quite  rapidly.  If 
well  cared  for  the  loss  is  not  great. 

Treatment.  In  small  flocks  it  is  possible  to  treat  each  animal  separ- 
ately. In  large  flocks  this  is  impossible.  Foreign  l)odies  in  the  interdigi- 


38 


tal  space  should  be  removed  and  the  foot  trimmed  and  washed  with  about 
a four  or  five  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  some  of  the  creolin  preparations. 
In  bad  cases,  a stronger  solution  can  be  used.  In  treating  large  fiocks,  a 
long,  shallow  tank  can  be  placed  at  some  convenient  point  and  filled  to  a 
depth  of  four  or  five  inches  with  a strong  antiseptic  solution.  The  fiock 
should  be  driven  through  this  at  least  once  a day  and  not  hurried,  but 
given  plenty  of  time. 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 


ARTHIRITIS  OF  LAMBS. 

Causes.  This  disease  is  due  to  septic  substances  entering  the  body 
by  w'ay  of  the  umbilical  cord.Filthy  quarters  and  a large  umbilical  cord 
that  does  not  dry  as  soon  as  ordinary  are  the  predisposing  causes. 

Symptoms.  These  are  manifested  soon  after  birth.  The  lamb  is  fe- 
verish, weak,  and  careless  of  the  teat.  One  or  more  of  the  joints  become 
enlarged,  hot  and  painful.  Constipation  is  frequently  present  or  it  may 
have  a diarrhea.  Sometimes  the  lamb  is  unable  to  walk  or  when  it  does, 
it  is  stiff  and  lame.  Pus  sometimes  forms  in  the  affected  joints,  and  dif- 
ferent internal  organs.  The  disease  usually  proves  fatal  and  if  the  lamb 
does  recover  it  is  worthless. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  washing  the  um- 
bilical cord  soon  after  birth  with  about  a ten  per  cent,  watery  solution  of 
carbolic  acid.  This  will  cause  it  to  dry  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  germs. 
The  quarters  must  be  dry  and  clean,  and  if  the  disease  is  present  in  a 
fiock,  the  sheep  house  must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

MALIGNANT  OEDEMA.  BLOOD  POISONING. 

Causes.  Malignant  oedema  is  due  to  a germ  (the  bacillus  of  odema). 
The  germ  is  present  in  large  numbers  in  the  soil  and  infection  takes  place 
by  a wound  in  the  skin  becoming  contaminated  with  dirt,  faeces,  dust,  etc. 

Symptoms.  A swelling  forms  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  infected 
part.  This  is  at  first  small  but  spreads  gradually  in  all  directions  and 
feels  doughy.  The  center  of  the  swelling  is  cold,  painless  and  crackles 
when  pressed  on.  On  the  margin  it  is  tense,  hot  and  painful.  When 
cut  into  it  has  a disagreeable  odor.  Pus  forming  germs  are  present  in  the 


39 


older  areas.  The  general  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  fever,  quick,  weak 
pulse,  etc.  The  disease  usually  terminates  fatally  in  a few  days. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  is  mainly  surgical  and  consists  in  making 
a number  of  incisions  into  the  oeaematous  swelling  and  obtaining  drain- 
age as  well  as  admitting  air.  The  part  must  be  washed  out  with  a strong 
creolin  solution  two  or  three  times  a day.  If  very  weak,  stimulants  can 
be  given. 

RABIES.  HYDROPHOBIA. 

Rabies  is  an  infectious  disease  and  is  caused  by  the  sheep  being  bitten 
by  a rabid  dog.  It  i snot  as  common  a disease  of  sheep  as  of  cattle,  due  to 
their  body  being  so  well  protected  by  wool.  The  period  of  incubation  will 
vary  twenty-five  to  ninety  days. 

Symptoms.  The  expression  of  the  face  is  usually  staring  and  when 
approached  the  animals  may  become  restless,  stamp  the  foot,  bleat,  etc. 
If  a stick  is  held  in  front  of  them  they  will  frequently  bite  at  it.  On  ac- 
count of  the  bite  itching  intensely,  the  sheep  may  rub  and  bite  the  part. 
The  sexual  desire  is  generally  increased  and  the  rabid  sheep  will  crowd 
and  push  against  the  other  members  of  the  flock,  jumping  on  them  and 
bleating  with  a dull,  rough  voice.  Weakness  soon  sets  in  and  in  the  latter 
stage  of  the  disease,  when  startled,  it  may  drop  to  the  ground,  lie  still  for 
a time  and  have  difficulty  in  rising.  In  some  cases  the  sheep  acts  dull  and 
does  not  manifest  these  rabid  symptoms.  Death  takes  place  in  a few  days 
or  a week. 

When  symptoms  of  rabies  are  manifested,  the  sheep  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  flock  or  destroyed  at  once. 

VARIOLA.  SHEEP  POX. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  variola  was  a formidable  plague 
of  the  flocks  of  Europe.  In  1819  over  a million  sheep  died  of  this  disease 
in  France  alone,  and  in  1823  half  a million  in  Austria.  In  some  European 
countries  it  is  still  prevalent.  This  disease  bears  an  interesting  relation 
with  cow  pox  in  cattle  and  small  pox  in  man. 

Causes.  Variola  is  a highly  contagious  disease,  the  contagious  element 
l)eing  present  in  the  crusts  from  the  pustules  on  the  skin,  in  the  excretions, 
blood  and  expired  air.  It  can  be  carried  a long  distance.  The  exact  nature 
of  the  virus  is  not  known.  In  sheep  sheds,  yards,  etc.,  the  virus  may 
remain  active  for  a month  or  six  weeks,  but  is  easily  destroyed  l)y  pntre- 


40 


faction,  a high  temperature  and  the  ordinary  disinfectants.  Variola  is 
spread  by  animals  that  have  had  it  within  a period  of  a few  weeks  or  a 
month,  by  innoculated  sheep,  wool,  dogs,  manure,  fodder,  etc.  One  attack ' 
causes  a life-time  immunity.  The  period  of  incubation  is  from  four  to 
seven  days. 

Symptoms.  The  sheep  is  depressed,  weak,  hangs  its  head,  breathes 
quickly,  is  feverish  and  has  chills.  in  a day  or  two  red 
spots  or  pimples  appear  on  the  skin  not  covered  or  incompletely  cov- 
ered wuth  long  w-ool.  When  the  eruptions  are  close  together  the  skin  be- 
comes badly  swollen.  In  about  five  days  the  vesicles  or  pustules  form, 
dry  up  and  scab  over,  the  swelling  then  disappears  and  the  scabs  loosen 
and  drop  off  leaving  a pit  in  which  no  w^ool  afterw'ards  grows. 

As  a prevention,  healthy  animals  are  given  a mild  form  of  the  disease 
by  innoculating  them  on  the  ear,  tail,  etc.,  wdth  a virus  obtained  from 
a mild  case  after  it  has  run  for  six  or  eight  days.  The  disease  does  not 
occur  here. 

SYMPTOMATIC  ANTHRAX.  BLACK  LEG. 

Causes.  This  is  not  a common  disease  of  sheep.  The  specific  cause  is 
a germ,  a bacillus  that  w'hen  conditions  are  favorable  wull  probably  de- 
velop in  the  soil  and  live  for  years.  The  germ  gains  entrance  to  the  body 
by  some  wound  on  the  leg,  mouth  or  body.  The  period  of  incubation  is 
from  one  to  five  days. 

Symptoms.  The  tumors  may  develop  on  different  parts  of  the  body, 
develop  rapidly  and  are  sensitive  at  first.  The  skin  over  the  tumor  soon 
becomes  gangrenous  and  cold,  and  w'hen  cut  into  the  tissues  are  dark  col- 
ored and  a frothy,  red  liquid  together  with  gas  escapes.  I'he  general 
symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  weak  pulse,  high  temperature  and  finally 
difficult  respiration,  violent  colic,  brain  complications,  coma,  insensibility 
and  death.  The  disease  runs  a rapidly  fatal  course. 

Treatment.  This  is  purely  preventive.  When  the  disease  is  present 
in  a fiock,  vaccination  should  be  practiced. 

ANTHRAX. 

Anthrax  has  been  knowm  for  centuries,  but  it  has  been  only  within 
the  last  fifty  years  that  its  true  character  'was  discovered.  In  this  coun- 
try the  disease  is  not  very  prevalent  and  is  not  common  among  sheep. 

Causes.  The  specific  cause  of  this  disease  is  a bacilus,  the  bacilus  of 


41 


anthrax.  Outside  of  the  body  this  germ  will  grow  and  multiply  whenever 
the  conditions  are  favorable,  and  it  will  resist  to  a remarkable  degree,  if 
spores  are  formed,  germicides,  dessication,  high  temperature,  low  temper- 
ature and  other  unfavorable  conditions.  It  develops  best  in  dark  soil 
rich  in  organic  matter,  manure,  mud,  etc.  In  anthrax  countries  the  over- 
flowing of  river  bottoms  in  the  spring  or  a very  hot,  dry  summer  will  fa- 
vor the  development  of  the  organism  and  may  cause  an  outbreak  of  the 
disease.  The  germs  are  taken  into  the  body  with  the  food  or  by  way  of 
a wound  in  the  skin,  tongue  or  mucuous  membrane  of  the  mouth.  When 
a carcass  is  not  properly  disposed  of  flies  and  other  insects  act  as  carriers 
of  the  disease  and  infect  healthy  animals.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
carcass  of  a sheep  or  other  animal  that  has  died  from  this  disease  to  be 
dragged  over  the  pasture,  road  or  street  and  healthy  animals  may  inhale 
the  germs  along  with  the  dust,  or  take  them  into  the  body  along  with  the 
food.  Commercial  fertilizers,  hides,  etc.,  sometimes  act  as  carriers  of  the 
disease. 

Symptoms.  Anthrax  in  sheep  generally  takes  on  a very  acute  form. 
The  animal  is  suddenly  stricken  with  apoplexy,  staggers,  falls  down,  is 
seized  with  convulsions  and  dies  in  a few  minutes.  Black  blood  is  dis- 
charged from -the  anus  and  mouth.  When  the  disease  takes  on  a less  acute 
form  the  symptoms  will  differ.  The  animal  may  act  restless  at  first.  The 
respirations  and  pulse  are  quickened,  the  mucuous  membranes  are  dark 
colored,  it  frequently  tries  to  pass  faeces,  is  delirious  or  dull  and  finally 
liBS  down  and  dies  in  a short  time. 

Treatment.  Ihis  is  wholly  preventive  and  consists  in  destroying  the 
cadaver  by  burning  or  burying  deeply  at  some  distance  from  barns,  yards 
or  public  highways,  and  vaccinating  all  susceptible  animals.  The  dead 
animals  must  not  be  dragged  over  the  ground  but  disposed  of  as  near  the 
place  of  aeath  as  possiole.  Disinfectants  must  oe  freely  used  around  the 
place  where  the  animal  died. 

TUBERCUJ.OSIS.  CONSUMPTION. 

Tuberculosis  is  an  infectious  disease  and  is  caused  by  a specific  germ, 
the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  This  disease  is  rarely  met  with  in  sheep. 
Infection  is  said  to  take  place  through  being  kept  with  tuberculous  cattle 
and  in  lambs  by  drinking  of  the  milk  from  tuber^culous  cows. 


42 


Symptoms.  The  symptoms  will  depend  on  the  organs  involved  and 
the  stage  of  the  disease.  In  the  early  stages  the  symptoms  are  not  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  enable  ns  to  make  a diagnosis,  later  it  can  be  easily 
recognized.  The  sheep  may  have  a slight  cough  at  first  or  a chronic  indi- 
gestion. Glands  in  different  parts  of  the  body  may  become  enlarged.  In 
the  last  stages,  the  animal  is  usually  emaciated,  the  fleece  ragged,  it  stands 
with  the  back  arched,  the  respirations  are  rapid,  the  lung  sounds  dead- 
ened and  it  breathes  through  the  mouth. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  not  exposing  the 
sheep  to  the  disease.  When  the  symptoms  are  sufficiently  developed  to 
enable  us  to  form  a diagnosis,  the  animal  should  be  destroyed  and  the 
carcass  disposed  of  in  a proper  manner. 

TETANUS.  LOCK  JAW. 

Causes.  This  is  an  infectious  disease  and  is  caused  by  the  bacillus 
of  tetanus,  a germ  that  is  present  in  the  soil,  especially  if  rich  in  organic 
matter.  The  disease  is  more  common  and  takes  a more  acute  form  in 
warm  than  in  cold  countries.  Infection  takes  place  by  dirt  containing  the 
bacillus  entering  a wound.  Punctured  wounds  caused  by  nails  or  splinters 
of  wood  and  contused  wounds  are  most  suitable  for  its  development.  The 
disease  may  follow  an  operation,  especially  castration,  when  performed 
without  proper  antiseptic  precautions.  The  period  of  incubation  is  short, 
usually  less  than  a week. 

Symptoms.  In  this  disease  the  germ  remains  at  the  point  of  innocula- 
tion  and  there  manufactures  poisonous  substances  that  have  an  action  on 
the  body  similar  to  strychnine.  The  symptoms  are  acute.  The  sheep 
stands  immovable,  with  all  four  legs  stretched  out  as  if  on  stilts,  the  tail 
is  rigid,  neck  and  back  stiff  and  jaws  closed.  The  muscles  of  the  neck  and 
back  are  hard,  the  respirations  quick  and  difficult,  the  pulse  weak,  and  fi- 
nally it  goes  down  and  dies  in  a short  time.  In  sheep  the  death  rate  is 
very  high. 

Treatment.  It  is  important  as  a preventive  measure  to  treat  all 
wounds  properly  and  to  use  the  necessary  antiseptic  precautions  in  per- 
forming surgical  operations,  especially  castration.  It  is  only  in  subacute 
cases  that  medicinal  treatment  is  beneficial,  and  in  this  disease  the  ad- 
ministration of  medicine  is  less  beneficial  than  careful  nursing.  The 
wound  must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  the  sick  animal  given  a quiet. 


43 


dark  stall  and  made  as  comfortable  as  possible.  Plenty  of  fresh  water 
should  be  provided  and  if  it  can  eat,  soft,  sloppy  foods  or  green  grass  can 
be  given  in  preference  to  dry  food.  If  constipated  an  enema  can  be  giv- 
en. Chloral  hydrate  in  half  dram  doses,  every  hour  in  the  drinking  water 
or  feed  may  relieve  the  spasms. 

INFLUENZA.  MALIGNANT  CATARRHAL  FEVER. 

Influenza  is  an  infectious  disease  the  speciflc  cause  of  which 
is  not  known.  It  is  especially  prevalent  during  certain  years  and  when 
the  conditions  are  favorable  may  affect  a large  number  of  animals  in  the 
flock.  As  in  other  diseases,  age,  breed,  care,  hygienic  conditions,  etc.,  will 
influence  the  number  of  animals  aifected  in  a flock.  Exposure,  draughts, 
confining  the  flock  in  too  close  quarters  and  poor  ventilation  are  the  com- 
mon predisposing  causes. 

Symptoms.  The  general  condition  of  the  sheep  is  greatly  disturbed 
and  the  animal  presents  a droopy,  depressed  appearance.  It  is  feverish 
and  weak,  stands  with  the  back  arched  and  may  have  a staggering  gait. 
It  generally  refuses  to  eat,  has  a cough  and  swallows  with  difficulty.  The 
respiratory  mucuous  membrane  is  inflamed,  the  discharge  from  the  nos- 
trils is  increased  and  sometimes  swelling  appears  under  the  jaw.  Diarrhea 
is  sometimes  a prominent  symptom.  When  the  respiratory  apparatus 
is  generally  affected  the  respirations  are  difficult  and  rapid.  Pneumonia  and 
inflammation  of  the  brain  and  its  coverings  are  frequent  complications. 
In  some  cases  both  the  external  and  internal  parts  of  the  eye  become  in- 
flamed, the  lids  are  swollen,  the  conjunctival  membrane  and  the  eye 
take  on  a milky  appearance.  The  duration  of  the  disease  is  from  a few 
days  to  several  weeks.  In  mild  cases  recovery  occurs  in  a few  days,  but 
if  not  cared  for  properly  a relapse  may  occur.  The  prognosis  is  unfavor- 
able in  the  severe  type. 

Lesions.  The  change  in  the  tissues  of  the  body  will  vary  . In  acute 
cases  they  are  not  marked,  but  when  the  disease  is  complicated  and  the 
duration  a week  or  more,  various  tissues  and  organs  are  affected.  The 
principal  changes  are  in  the  respiratory  organs.  The  mucuous  mem- 
brane lining  the  pharynx,  larynx,  tra(;hea,  and  bronchial  tubes  is  red  and 
thickened;  that  lining  the  sinuses  of  the  head  is  also  involved  and  a por- 
tion of  the  lung  tissue  may  be  affected  by  a catarrhal  pneumonia.  In  se- 
vere cases  the  pleural  membrane  as  well  as  a large  portion  of  the  lung  is 


44 


affected.  Other  lesions  are  in  the  brain,  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  kid- 
neys, spleen,  heart  and  lymph  glands. 

Treatment.  The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  avoiding  conditions 
that  will  predispose  the  flock  to  the  disease.  If  the  disease  is  present  in 
a flock,  it  should  be  looked  over  carefully  every  day  and  the  sick  sheep 
separated  from  the  healthy  ones  and  given  comfortable  quarters,  good 
care  and  good  nourishing  food.  In  mild  cases  this  may  be  all  the  treat- 
ment necessary.  In  the  catarrhal  form  the  following  prescription  is  use- 
ful: tincture  of  belladonna  (four  drams),  tincture  or  aconite  (one-half 
dram),  and  sufficient  syrup  of  squills  to  make  a four  ounce  mixture;  mix 
and  give  one  tablespconful  three  times  a aay.  This  treatment  is  best 
followed  by  tonics  and  expectorants.  The  following  recipe  can  be  given; 
tincture  of  gentian  (four  drams),  iodide  of  potassium  (two  drams), 
and  enough  water  to  make  four  ounces;  mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful 
twice  a da5^  If  diarrhea  is  present  one  ounce  of  linseed  oil  and  a dram 
of  tincture  of  opium  given  two  or  three  times  a day  will  give  good  results. 

PARASITIC  DISEASES. 


GRUB  IN  THE  HEAD.  OESTRUS  OVIS,  Linn. 

The  parasitis  disease  of  the  nostrils  of  sheep  is  generally  known  as 
grub  in  the  head.  The  presence  of  the  parasite  is  not  seen  from  a general 
examination,  only  the  catarrhal  discharge.  The  grubs  are  only  found  on  a 
careful  post  mortem  examination.  As  a matter  of  fact,  we  have  very  little 
catarrh  of  sheep  affecting  only  one  side  of  the  nostrils  and  that  usually 
in  late  winter  and  early  spring.  These  supposed  catarrhs  are  nearly  al- 
ways due  to  the  grub  stage  of  the  sheep  gad  fly. 

The  sheep  gad  fly  is  unknown  to  the  sheep  breeder  in  anything  ex- 
cept the  larval  or  grub  state.  The  mature  fly  is  like  an  over-grown 
house  fly  of  a dullish  yellow  color  so  closely  covered  with  small,  black 
spots  as  to  give  the  whole  a brownish  appearance.  The  abdomen  con- 
sists of  flve  rings,  velvety  and  variegated  with  brown  and  straw  color. 
The  feet  are  brown;  the  wings  are  transparent  and  quite  large.  The  head 
is  whitish  underneath.  There  are  no  mouth  parts  and  the  eyes  are  pur- 
plish brown,  'j’here  are  three  eyelets  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  space 
between  the  eyes  in  the  male  is  very  narrow,  being  less  than  one-tnird  that 
of  the  female.  The  fly  is  only  obtained  by  hatching  the  grub  in  a cage 


45 


and  watching  developments.  They  are  very  sluggish  and  remain  in  hiding 
until  fully  matured  and  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  high.  The  female 
rises  high  and  flies  swiftly  to  a flock  and  deposits  an  egg  containing  a de- 
veloping larvae.  The  male  never  bothers  a flock.  The  female  only  flies 
during  the  hot  months  and  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

The  attack  of  a flock  of  sheep  by  these  flies  is  attended  witn  the  same 
fright  as  is  seen  when  the  horse  gad  fly  strikes  the  horses  nose.  The 
sheep  will  push  their  noses  down  into  the  ground  between  their  legs,  run, 


Section  of  sheep’s  head  showing  grubs  in  the  sinus  or  cavity  above  the  air  passage 
and  in  front  of  the  brain. 

Stamp,  snort  and  huddle  together,  seek  the  shade  of  low  sheds,  or  under 
buildings.  The  attack  seems  to  strike  terror  to  them.  The  sheep  are  not 
molested  during  the  morning  or  evening.  As  the  mature  fly  has  no  mouth 
parts  or  means  of  feeding,  it  is  evident  that  its  sole  mission  is  to  propa- 
gat  the  species. 

The  young  hot  begins  to  make  its  way  up  the  nasal  passage  as  soon 
as  it  is  deposited.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the  hooks  and  spines. 
The  operation  is  attended  with  some  tickling  or  irritatif)ii  as  there  is  often 
violent  sneezing  and  snorting  but  apparently  without  avail. 


46 


The  larvae  find  their  way  to  the  superior  part  of  the  nasal  cavity, 
between  the  turbinate  bones,  the  frontal  or  facial  sinuses,  or 
between  the  ethemoid  cells.  Their  presence  causes  some  irritation  and 
stimulation  of  secretion,  which  it  uses  as  food.  It  lives  in  this  location  for 
several  months,  at  least  over  the  winter,  and  make  their  escape  in  the 
spring.  Ordinarily  we  do  not  find  more  than  one,  two,  or  three  grubs  in 
the  head  of  affected  sheep.  Occasionally  eight  or  ten  will  be  seen.  Some 
writers  record  from  twelve  to  twenty  grubs  in  bad  cases  and  there  are 
records  of  from  sixty  or  eighty.  When  the  number  is  small  there  are  no 
serious  symptoms.  When  there  are  several,  there  is  usually  marked  ca- 
tarrhal discharge  and  we  have  the  thick  effusive  mucous  characteristic 
of  the  snotty  nose. 

Treatment.  This  must  be  preventive  as  far  as  possible.  The  fly  does 
not  attack  sheep  in  the  shade  and  only  seeks  its  prey  during  the  middle 
of  the  day.  A low  temporary  shed  that  will  afford  shade  in  the  pasture 
will  be  a great  protection.  Valuable  breeding  stock  can  well  be  stabled 
and  allowed  to  graze  during  the  morning  and  evening,  riome  resort  to 
putting  tar  on  the  noses  every  few  days  to  prevent  attack.  This  can  be 
done  by  smearing  the  sides  of  a narrow  feed  trough  so  that  the  sheep  can 
not  avoid  touching  in  the  attempt  to  get  the  grain. 

The  treatment  of  a sheep  already  affected  is  unsatisfactory.  Injecting 
turpentine  into  the  nostril  as  so  often  recommended  reaches  only  a few 
that  may  not  be  in  the  sinus.  Trephining  or  opening  the  skull  is  rather 
theoretical  and  not  practical  on  large  fiocks.  Occasional  fumigating  the 
stable  with  turpentine  or  smoke  from  tar  will  palliate  the  catarrh.  If  the 
disease  develops  in  the  fall,  fatten  as  fast  as  possible  and  dispose  to  the 
butcher.  If  in  the  spring  use  good  care  and  feed  to  carry  the  sheep  along 
until  the  grub  comes  away. 

SHEEP  TICK. 

The  sheep  tick  as  it  is  commonly  called  is  one  of  the  commonest  of 
the  parasites  affecting  sheep.  It  is  not  a true  tick  but  a wingless  fly. 

This  parasite  is  not  a native  of  this  country,  but  has  been  brought 
here  through  importation  from  Europe.  It  was  first  rather  confined  to  the 
eastern  states,  but  owing  to  the  purchase  of  breeding  stock,  and  subse- 
quent traffic  in  sheep,  it  has  been  carried  to  a large  percentage  of  the 
flocks  in  this  state.  The  losses  occasioned  are  not  from  destroying  the 


47 


sheep  by  killing,  but  from  the  lack  of  thrift  occasioned  by  their  irritating 
and  biting  the  skin.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  losses  occasioned  in  a 
flock  by  the  presence  of  this  parasite,  but  where  they  become  numerous 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  amounts  to  a considerable  sum.  The 
state  has  been  called  upon  to  investigate  cases  of  supposed  scab  that 
were  due  to  ticks. 

The  parasite  of  this  disease,  Melophagus  ovius,  Linn,  is  a wingless 
fly.  It  has  six  well  developed  legs,  a short,  flat  head  set  closely  upon  the 


Sheep-tick.  Dorsal  or  back  view.  Ventral  or  under  surface. 

body  and  a large,  oval  abdomen.  Their  resemblance  to  the  tick,  with  its 
large  abdomen,  small  head  and  eight  slender  legs  is  not  so  very  close 
when  critically  examined. 

The  full  grown  tick  is  auout  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
about  one-third  as  wide  as  long. 

The  body  is  short,  flattened  above  and  below,  very  tough  and  leathery 
in  character.  The  color  varies  trom  an  ashen  to  reddish  gray  and  quite 
a bright  red,  dependent  upon  the  quantity  of  blood  imbibed  and  the  time 
elapsed  since  the  meal.  The  head  is  broad  and  very  flat  and  somewhat 
sunken  into  the  thorax.  The  eyes  are  small  and  on  about  a level  with 
the  head.  The  proboscis  is  tubular  and  reinforced  at  the  upper  part. 
Its  end  is  armed  with  teeth.  The  thorax  is  nearly  square  and 
bears  the  strong  legs.  The  abdomen  is  bag  like.  Ifiie  legs  are  each  pro- 
vided with  two  sharp  claws.  The  legs  and  body  are  covered  with  bris- 


48 


ties.  There  are  not  wings  but  a couple  of  bristle  spots  take  their  place. 

The  sexes  may  be  separated  by  their  size  and  the  form  of  the  sexual 
apparatus. 

The  tick  being  wingless  depends  wholly  upon  its  ability  to  crawl  for 
locomotion.  It  is  able  to  crawl  through  the  wool  at  quite  a lively  rate.  It 
bites,  and  sucks  the  blood  for  its  food.  Formerly  it  was  thought  that  it 
lived  in  part  upon  the  oily  matter  of  the  wool  and  the  epidermis  of  the 
skin.  The  fact  that  the  tick  soon  starves  to  death  even  when  kept  in 
fresh  wool  practically  settles  the  matter  that  it  is,  almost,  if  not  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  blood  for  its  nourishment.  The  bite  at  the  time  of  its 
infliction  is  not  painful,  but  afterward  it  becomes  reddened  and  itches  even 
more  than  that  inflicted  by  the  mosquito. 

The  tick  does  not  reproduce  rapidly  like  the  sheep  scab  mit#.  Only 
one  egg  is  laid  at  a time  and  not  more  than  eight  or  nine  are  produced 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  female.  A number  of  observers  believe  that 
there  are  only  one  or  two.  The  egg  is  large  and  resembles  a seed.  It  has 
a hardened  case,  having  a row  of  seven  dots  one  on  each  side.  The  spe- 
cial peculiarity  of  the  egg  is  the  fact  that  they  contain  half  developed 
pupae  at  the  time  they  are  deposited.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  wool  and 
a slight  waxy  substance  secures  their  adhesion.  The  insect  comes  out 
with  fully  developed  characters.  The  length  of  time  required  for  the  eggs 
to  hatch  is  variously  given  at  from  three  to  four  weeks.  A large  number 
of  eggs  taken  by  myself  from  sheep,  and  placed  in  wool  at  body  temper- 
ature required  from  17  to  22  days  to  develop. 

The  tick  is  a true  parasite  and  can  not  live  off  the  sheep  more  than  a 
few  days.  Not  being  able  to  fly  they  must  depend  upon  crawling  to  in- 
fect new  stock,  and  this  necessitates  close  contact,  or  the  use  of  very 
recently  used  pens.  The  tick  may  fall  upon  the  bedding  and  by  chance 
crawl  upon  another  animal.  Their  slow  rate  of  multiplication  prevents 
them  from  becoming  very  numerous  except  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  At 
shearing  time  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  may  be  found  on  badly  affected 
animals.  After  shearing,  the  tick  will  migrate  to  the  lamb  because  of  lack 
of  protection  and  under  such  circumstances  may  cause  considerable  loss. 

The  means  of  destroying  the  tick  is  by  dipping,  the  same  as  for  scab. 
The  dip  used  for  this  purpose  need  not  be  more  than  one-third  or  one-half 
as  strong  as  that  used  for  scab.  The  preferable  dips  are  those  containing 


49 


crude  carbolic  acid  or  creolin.  The  sheep  or  lamb  need  not  be  in  the 
bath  more  than  a few  seconds.  The  sheep  become  no  wetter  by  continued 
immersion.  Unlike  the  condition  in  scab  the  parasites  are  all  on  the  out- 
side and  readily  accessible.  Sheep  giving  evidence  of  this  trouble  should 
be  dipped  at  any  time  if  the  weather  is  favorable.  They  should  be  dipped 
after  shearing  as  the  quantity  of  dip  then  required  is  small.  It  is  also  a 
good  plan  to  dip  again  in  the  fall.  The  expense  is  small,  costing  only 
about  a fourth  or  a half  cent  per  head,  and  in  an  ordinary  tank  two  hun- 
dred can  easily  be  passed  through  in  an  hour. 

SHEEP  SCAB. 

Sheep  scab  is  a parasitic  disease  of  sheep,  the  parasite  causing  the 
disease  is  known  as  the  scab  mite  or  itch  mite.  The  disease  is  the  same  as 
mange  or  itch  in  other  animals.  There  are  four  varieties  of  scab,  com- 
mon or  body  scab,  caused  by  Psoroptes  commuins;  Furst,  variety  ovis. 
The  head  scab  is  a variety  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  head  or  where 
the  weel  is  quite  short,  and  caused  by  Sarcoptes  scabiei;  de  Gier,  variety 
ovis.  The  third  variety  affects  the  feet  and  legs  and  under  parts  of  the 
body,  is  called  foot  scab  and  is  caused  by  Chorioptes  communis;  Verheyen; 
variety  ovis.  The  last  form  affects  the  eyeiids  and  is  produced  by  Demo- 
dex  folliculorm;  variety  ovis. 

All  except  the  first  variety  are  of  such  rare  occurrence  as  to  be  of  lit- 
tle economic  interest.  During  ten  years  of  experience  in  the  state  we  have 
not  met  or  seen  a case  other  than  of  the  first  vareity. 

While  we  distinguish  these  varieties  and  the  affections  which  they 
produce  are  easily  recognizable,  the  life  history  and  habits  are  so  nearly 
alike  that  one  description  will  suffice  for  all. 

The  common  scab  mite  is  very  small,  being  only  about  a fortieth  of 
an  inch  in  length  in  the  female  and  one-sixtieth  of  an  inch  in  breadth. 
The  male  is  still  smaller,  being  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  one- 
eightieth  of  an  inch  in  breadth.  The  body  is  oval  in  shape,  slightly  round- 
ed above  and  flat  below.  It  is  possessed  of  eight  legs,  which  are  short, 
the  two  front  pair  being  quite  stout  and  the  last  pair  is  very  small.  The 
head  is  pointed  and  set  close  to  the  body.  There  are  some  hairs  on  the 
legs  and  body.  The  color  is  a reddish  or  yellowish  gray.  These  parasites 
are  too  small  to  be  recognized  by  the  unaided  eye  on  the  body  of  their 


4 


50 


host.  Placed  upon  a dark  background  in  strong  sunlight,  they  may  be 
seen  to  crawl.  The  parasite  has  very  feeble  powers  of  locomotion.  The 
scab  mite  lives  by  biting  the  surface  skin  which,  in  turn,  through  the  irri- 
tation causes  an  exudate  to  be  thrown  out  that  crusts  or  scabs.  Under 
these  scabs  the  ovoid  eggs  are  deposited.  It  only  requires  two  or  three 
days  for  the  eggs  to  hatch,  but  about  twelve  days  more  for  the  young  to 


Dorsal  and  ventral  views. 


undergo  its  transformation  and  become  an  adult.  The  new  parasite  then 
seeks  a new  area  to  repeat  the  process  and  thus  the  margin  of  the  original 
site  of  infection  becomes  extended  indefinitely.  Each  female  lays  about 
fifteen  eggs,  two-thirds  of  which  develop  females. 

Gerlach  made  a study  of  the  enormous  rapidity  with  which  such  mul- 
tiplication takes  place  and  shows  that  the  offspring  from  a single  pair  in 
three  months  would  reach  the  enormous  number  of  1,500,000. 

His  method  of  computation  is  as  follows: 


Generation. 

Days. 

Females. 

Males. 

First 

15 

10 

5 

Second 

30 

100 

50 

Third 

45 

1000 

500 

Fourth 

60 

10000 

5000 

Fifth 

75 

100000 

50000 

Sixth 

90 

1000000 

500000 

While  it  may  be  that  the  conditions  are  never  so  favorable  as  to  se- 
cure complete  development  of  all  eggs  and  some  adults  become  loosened 
from  the  body  with  the  wool  before  reproduction  occurs,  it  does  account 


51 


for  the  very  rapid  development  of  the  disease  on  a flock,  and  the  enormous 
number  of  parasites  to  be  seen  in  small  particles  of  crusts.  It  is  probable 
in  most  instances  that  only  a very  few  parasites  are  transferred  from  a 
diseased  to  a healthy  animal,  and  it  can  be  easily  understood  that  slow 
progress  would  oe  made  in  the  first  forty-flve  days  and  that  it  might 
escape  attention  for  the  first  sixty  days  after  the  infection. 

It  has  happened  more  than  once  that  sheep  passing  through  stock- 
yards  to  farms  for  feeding  purposes  have  apparently  been  all  right  for  a 
month  or  more,  and  then  develop  the  trouble. 

The  scab  mite  is  a true  parasite,  that  is  one  that  can  not  multiply  off  the 
animal  body  and  cannot  thrive  on  another  host  for  more  than  a short 


Male  scab  mite.  Dorsal  and  ventral  views. 

time.  Its  life  off  the  body  is  limited  to  that  of  the  individual  adult  para- 
site, or  to  well-protected  eggs.  Just  what  this  period  is  in  each  case  has 
not  been  determined  as  satisfactorily  as  it  should  be.  The  probabilities 
are  that  the  period  is  short  and  not  some  months  as  some  assume. 

Sheep  scab  is  one  of  the  most  annoying  diseases  that  can  attack  a 
flock.  Attention  is  not  drawn  to  it,  until  it  has  been  present  for  some 
time  and  is  about  ready  to  make  rapid  progress.  It  is  destructive  of  both 
fleece  and  animal  if  not  treated  promptly  and  vigorously.  It  spreads 
more  rapidly  during  the  winter  while  sheep  are  penned  and  tne  fleece  is 
long.  The  disease  is  one  of  so  much  importanc  that  it  is  made  the  sub- 
ject of  special  legislation  in  many  of  the  states  and  by  systematic  efforts 
may  be  stamped  out. 

Sheep  scab  as  it  occurs  in  this  state  is  due  almost  wholly  to  the 


bringing  in  of  sheep  for  feeding  purposes.  The  recent  investigations  of 
about  5,0Q0  cases  reported  has  shown  that  more  than  nine-tenths  were 
sheep  that  had  been  in  the  stock  yards  or  shipped  on  board  cars.  The 
yards  and  cars  may  be  considered  permanently  infected  and  the  single 
dipping  given  at  the  yards  will  not  suffice.  The  disease  if  present  is  only 
checked  and  after  a couple  of  months  of  feeding  in  warm  stables  begins  to 
show  itself.  It  is  a serious  question  whether  it  would  not  be  advisable  to 
prevent  the  bringing  in  of  all  sheep  except  on  permit. 

The  act  of  the  legislature  approved  March  6,  1901,  provides  that 
sheep  scab  shall  be  reported  to  the  State  Veterinarian — being  a contagious 
disease — and  provides  specifically  as  follows: 

Sec.  4.  That  all  sheep  consigned  to  or  passing  through  stockyards 
shall  be  dipped  before  leaving,  if  intended  for  any  other  purposes  than 
immediate  slaughter  in  the  State,  the  time  of  dipping,  the  manner  of 
dipping,  and  kind  of  dip  used  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  State 
Veterinarian:  Provided,  That  in  the  winter  and  at  such  times  as  the 

dipping  of  sheep  would  be  hazardous  to  their  health,  the  sheep  may  be 
withdrawn  upon  permit  from  the  State  Veterinarian,  which  permit  shall 
be  issued  upon  the  written  agreement  of  the  owner  that  the  sheep  will 
remain  in  his  possession,  and  that  ne  will  dip  at  such  future  time  and 
in  such  manner  as  the  State  Veterinarian  may  direct.  That  all  sheep 
found  affected  with  scabies  shall  be  dipped  at  such  time  and  in  such 
manner  and  with  such  dip,  as  the  State  Veterinarian  shall  direct,  and 
at  the  expense  of  the  owner. 

Symptoms.  The  effect  of  the  scab  mite  is  one  of  irritation  to  the 
skin.  Whether  this  is  due  wholly  to  the  biting  in  the  effort  to  obtain 
food,  or  whether  some  part  is  due  to  some  poisonous  substance  secreted 
and  innoculated  with  the  bite  is  not  known.  The  very  intense  itching, 
papules,  and  inflammation  with  the  attending  exudate  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  it  is  due  to  something  more  than  mere  mechanical  injury. 

The  itching  causes  the  sheep  to  scratch  and  rub  and  bite  and  this  is 
aggravated  by  the  heat.  A sheep  with  a long,  heavy  fleece  in  a warm  sta- 
ble will  show  this  irritation  much  more  than  one  shorn  and  in  the  open 
field.  The  wool  will  loosen  at  the  points  of  attack  and  by  rubbing  and 
biting  is  pulled  out,  first  in  small  bunches,  and  then  in  large  masses  giving 
the  fleece  a very  rough  or  ragged  appearance.  In  advanced  stages  these 


53 


patches  run  together  and  leave  the  body  almost  bare.  The  effect  of  biting 
is  to  cause  an  inflammation  of  the  skkin  and  an  exudate  which  forms  a 
crust  or  scab.  It  is  under  this  crust  or  scab  that  the  eggs  are  deposited, 
and  when  the  new  generation  is  brought  forth,  they  migrate  a short  dis- 
tance and  repeat  the  biting  process  and  thus  increase  the  area.  The  dis- 
ease is  distinctly  one  of  progression  requiring  a month  or  more  from  the 
time  of  infection  to  develop  symptoms  that  will  attract  attention,  sixty 
days  more  to  develop  a well-marked  case,  and  ninety  days  or  inore  to  ren- 
der much  of  the  animal  bare.  The  disease  does  not  tend  to  self-recovery, 
but  to  destruction  unless  vigorously  treated.  Aside  from  causing  loss  of 
life  it  causes  loss  of  fleece,  loss  of  flesh,  and  breeding  ewes  may  loose  their 
lambs. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  of  sheep  scab  consists  in  using  some  ap- 
plication which,  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  parasite  or  eggs,  will 
kill  them.  Sanitary  measures  are  essential,  but  as  the  disease  is  not 
caused  by  unsanitary  surroundings  alone,  sanitary  surroundings  alone  will 
not  prevent  or  cure.  No  internal  medication  is  efflcatious.  Of  the  exter- 
nal applications,  the  dips  alone  are  worth  considering.  Ointments  or 
dips  for  hand  application  are  only  advisable  where  one  or  two  sheep  are 
afliected;  where  a few  are  affected,  and  the  weather  is  too  cold  to  dip,  or 
for  temporarily  arresting  the  disease  in  ewes  in  an  advanced  stage  of  preg- 
nancy. All  local  applications  applied  by  hand  may  be  put  down  as  only 
palliative.  It  is  a rare  thing  that  they  are  so  well  applied  that  they  cure. 
The  application  of  scab  or  lice  powders  are  likewise  lacking  in  efficiency, 
and  the  use  of  any  of  these  means  only  means  the  postponing  of  the  date 
when  general  infection  of  the  flock  will  occur  unless  separation  has  taken 
place  at  the  same  time.  The  essentials  of  a good  dip  are  that  it  should 
kill  the  parasite  and  should  cause  little  or  no  harm  to  the  sheep,  the 
fleece,  or  the  operator.  The  combination  of  all  these  qualities  is  not  easily 
attained,  otherwise  there  would  not  be  as  many  formulae  or  so  many 
discarded  dips.  There  have  l)een  bulletins  published  giving  numerous 
formulae  for  the  preparation  of  dips,  but  the  basis  of  about  all  have  been 
lime,  sulphur,  tobacco  and  arsenic.  These  have  been  used  in  varying  pro- 
portions and  in  combination,  sometimes  in  such  manner  as  to  be  quite 
harmful  and  at  other  times  almost  harmless.  The  whole  question  of  dips 
was  carefully  investigated  l)y  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  the 


54 


conclusion  reached  that  probably  the  most  effective  dips  were  those  com- 
posed of  sulphur  and  tobacco,  and  sulphur  and  lime  of  known  quantities, 
and  of  such  strength  that  they  were  not  injurious  to  the  sheep  or  fleece. 
The  composition  of  the  sulphur  and  tobacco,  and  lime  and  sulphur  dip, 
and  the  manner  of  preparing  can  be  followed  by  any  intelligent  stock 
owner.  The  objections  to  tobacco  and  sulphur  dips,  and  lime  and  sulphur 
dips  arise  from  classing  all  the  dips  composed  of  these  materials  as  being 
the  same  while  as  a matter  of  fact  there  is  widest  latitude  in  their  com- 
position and  method  of  prepartion.  In  some  formulae  the  lime  and  sul- 
phur are  present  in  equal  proportions,  in  some,  the  lime  is  in  excess  at  the 
rate  of  two  to  one,  and  in  others  the  sulphur  is  in  excess  at  the  rate  of 
of  three  to  one.  The  quantity  of  lime  and  sulphur  present  may  vary  from 
thirty  pounds  to  the  hundred  gallons  of  dip  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
per  hundred  gallons  of  dip.  The  very  strong  dips  are  dangerous  to  the  life 
of  the  sheep  and  injurious  to  the  wool.  The  dips  containing  the  least  lime 
and  sulphur  have  been  found  to  be  effective  and  produce  no  noticable  ef- 
fect upon  the  wool.  The  Colorado  dip  consists  of  thirty-three  pounds  of 
flowers  of  sulphur,  eleven  pounds  of  unslaked  lime,  and  one  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  is  regarded  as  very  effective.  The  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  dip  consists  of  the  same  proportions,  but  in  still  less  quantity, 
twenty-four  pounds  of  flower  of  sulphur,  eight  pounds  of  unslaked  lime, 
and  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  The  objections  urged  against  lime  and 
sulphur  dips  based  upon  the  injuries  or  damages  done  by  the  very  strong 
dip  cannot  be  applied  to  these. 

To  make  a lime  and  sulphur  dip  requires  more  time  and  care  than  is 
usually  given  to  make  a proper  mixture.  The  lime  and  sulphur  should  be 
weighed  and  the  exact  quantity  of  water  measured.  The  given 
quantities  of  lime  and  sulphur  are  taken  and  water  added  until  it  can  be 
rubbed  into  a creamy  paste.  This  mass  is  now  boiled  in  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  gallons  of  water  for  two  and  one-half  to  three  hours 
and  stirred  occasionally  during  the  boiling  period.  The  mixture  is  now 
allowed  to  stand  over  night  in  a barrel,  or  other  receptacle,  so  that  all 
the  solid  matter  may  settle  and  the  clear  liquid  may  be  drawn  off.  It  is 
important  that  only  the  clear  liquid  should  be  used.  The  clear  liquid  is 
then  diluted  in  the  dipping  tank  with  sufficient  warm  warm  water  to  make 
one  hundred  gallons  and  is  ready  for  use.  On  the  basis  of  first  cost  of 


55 


material  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip  is  very  economical,  but  where  only  a 
few  sheep  are  to  be  dipped,  the  trouble  attending  its  preparation  is  so 
great  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  the  most  economical  to  use. 

The  tobacco  dip  may  be  made  as  follows.  Take  sixteen  pounds  of  to- 
bacco leaves  or  stems  and  cover  with  warm  water  and  let  stand  for  a day. 
The  amount  of  water  used  should  not  be  less  than  thirty  gallons,  and  it  is 
preferable  that  it  should  be  the  full  quantity  to  he  used,  one  hundred  gal- 
lons, if  the  receptacle  is  large  enough  to  hold  it.  At  the  end  of  a day, 
bring  the  tobacco  infusion  to  the  boiling  point  for  a few  minutes  and  allow 
it  to  stand  over  night.  Strain  off  the  infusion.  Take  as  many  pounds  of 
flower  of  sulphur  as  tobacco  used,  mix  the  sulphur  in  sufficient  water  to 
make  a smooth,  creamy  mass.  When  ready  to  dip  warm  the  infusion  to 
one  hundred  degrees,  and  if  only  thirty  gallons  of  water  has  been  used, 
dilute  to  one  hundred  gallons  and  add  the  sulphur  and  keep  it  well  stirred 
during  the  dipping. 

The  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip  is  the  most  effective  that  has  been  used  in 
this  state,  but  is  tedious  and  disagreeable  to  make  and  while  we  have  no 
desire  to  advertise  any  particular  dip,  we  believe  that  few  can  afford  to 
make  the  dip  under  ordinary  farm  conditions,  so  long  as  good  tobacco  ex- 
tracts may  be  purchased  in  the  open  market.  The  first  cost  of  materials 
for  the  tobacco  infusion  would  be  less  than  for  the  extract,  but  if  a man’s 
time  is  worth  anything,  or  he  is  affected  by  the  disagreeable  odor  from 
the  tobacco  in  preparation,  the  extract  from  the  leaves  is  to  be  prefered. 

There  are  a number  of  good  proprietary  dips  upon  the  market,  and  in 
the  state,  the  practice  is  to  allow  the  owner  to  select  his  own  dip  as  long 
as  the  results  desired  are  accomplished.  Where  advice  is  given,  however, 
it  is  to  use  tobacco  extract  with  sulphur.  For  ticks  the  creolin-like  prep- 
arations are  preferable  but  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  scab  . An  arsenical 
dip  may  be  made  as  follows:  arsenic,  two  pounds,  sulphur  four  pounds, 

and  carbonate  of  soda,  two  pounds  for  each  one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 
The  soda  and  arsenic  are  first  dissolved  in  a couple  gallons  of  water 
and  then  the  flower  of  sulphur  added  and  stirred  vigorously  for  a few 
minutes  until  it  makes  a smooth  paste.  This  is  then  kept  ready  and 
added  to  the  rerpiired  amount  of  water  at  time  of  dipping.  The  arsenical 
dip  is  not  any  more  effective  than  the  tobacco  dip  and  is  not  so  good  be- 
cause of  being  poisonous  and  accidents  are  likely  to  follow.  The  sheep 


56 


must  be  kept  off  all  pasture  until  tnoroughly  dry  so  that  the  dripping  may 
not  fall  upon  that  which  may  be  eaten.  Every  particle  of  dip  not  used 
should  be  buried  to  insure  that  no  stock  shall. find  access  to  it.  Arsenical 
dips  were  used  very  extensively  but  so  many  accidents  have  resulted  that 
they  cannot  be  recommended  except  in  such  cases  where  great  care  will 
be  exercised. 

All  dips  should  be  used  fresh.  It  is  bad  practice  to  dip  a fiock  of  sheep 
and  allow  the  residue  to  remain  in  the  vat  for  ten  days  or  until  the  next 
dipping.  The  failures  and  alleged  injurious  poisonous  effects  may  often  oe 
traced  to  such  practice. 

The  quantity  of  dip  required  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  sheep  to 
be  dipped,  the  length  of  the  fleece  and  the  extent  to  which  the  drainage  re- 
turns to  the  vat.  It  requires  several  gallons  of  dip  in  which  to  immerse  a 
sheep  so  that  the  loss  is  large  when  only  a few  sheep  are  to  be  dipped. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  after  shearing,  and  until  the  wool  becomes 
about  an  inch  in  length  that  each  sheep  will  carry  off  from  a quart  to  a 
quart  and  a half  of  dip  after  it  has  been  allowed  to  stand  for  a few  min- 
utes. In  the  latter  part  of  winter  and  before  shearing,  the  loss  will  be 
nearly  one  gallon  per  head.  These  amounts  may  seem  large,  but  are  about 
the  average  as  found  in  practice. 

Arrangements  for  Dipping.  Sheep  may  be  dipped  with  very  simple 
arrangements,  a box  just  large  enough  to  hold  a sheep  and  dip  and  a few 
square  feet  of  drain  board  on  which  to  place  the  sheep  for  a short  time 
will  suffice.  Effective  dipping  may  be  done  in  this  manner,  but  with  much 
labor  and  loss  of  time.  Such  a method  is  probably  justifiable  where  there 
are  only  a few  sheep  that  must  be  dipped  in  an  emergency.  If  a large 
number  of  sheep  are  to  be  dipped  or  dipping  is  to  be  done  every  year,  it 
will  be  found  more  economical  to  build  or  buy  a dipping  tank  as  it  will 
be  more  convenient,  and  save  dip  and  labor.  The  dipping  tank  should 
be  narrow  at  the  bottom,  wide  at  the  top,  straight  up  and  down  at  the  end 
where  the  sheep  are  expected  to  enter,  and  the  bottom  built  on  an  incline 
at  the  other  end  so  that  the  sheep  may  walk  out  and  not  rquire  to  be 
lifted  out. 

The  incline  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  tank  as  it  is 
desirable  that  the  lifting  of  the  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  soaking  sheep  be  avoided.  The  dipping  tank  should  be  located  at  some 


57 


convenient  point  for  corralling  the  sheep,  as  a barn  floor,  or  along  the 
side  of  a fence  and  a hurdle  erected  to  drive  the  sheep  to  the  end  of  the 
tank.  The  tank  should  be  partially  sunk  into  the  ground  to  make  it  con- 
venient for  the  operator  and  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  getting  the  sheep 
up  so  high.  A draining  floor  must  be  provided  about  flve  by  ten  feet, 
water  tight  and  so  placed  and  inclined  that  the  excess  dip  will  return  to 
the  tank.  Where  small  flocks  of  fifty  to  three  hundred  are  to  be  dipped. 


A simple  arrangement  for  dipping  sheep. 

we  have  found  nothing  so  quickly  made  to  serve  this  purpose  as  a good 
wagon  bed.  If  it  leaks  it  can  be  made  perfectly  tight  with  linoleum  at 
little  expense.  The  accompanying  picture  will  show  a convenient  ar- 
rangement that  may  be  obtained  on  any  farm  with  probably  the  minimum 
trouble  and  expense. 


58 


INTERNAL  PARASITES 


THE  BLADDER  WORMS. 

Taenia  marginata;  Batsch. 

On  dressing  sheep  and  lambs  it  happens  sometimes  that  the  folds  of 
the  omentum  or  caul  will  contain  a number  of  semi-transparent  bladder 
like  bodies  from  a half  to  one  inch  in  diameter,  A similar  condition  may 
be  found  on  the  brain  due  to  another  variety  of  the  parasite.  These 
bladders  contain  a worm  known  as  the  bladder  worm  and  are  one  stage 
in  the  development  of  the  tape  worm. 

The  Taenia  marginata;  Batsch,  is  the  variety  affecting  the  abdomi- 
nal cavity.  In  from  one  to  two  weeks  after  sheep  ingest  the  eggs  of  this 
parasite,  the  young  will  have  developed  and  migrated  from  the  intestinal 
canal  and  a favorite  place  for  them  is  on  the  surface  of  the  liver.  They 
may  migrate  from  any  part  of  the  intestinal  tract  and  therefore  may  be 
found  at  any  place  along  its  course.  The  bladders  are  composed  of  a del- 
icate, whitish  membrane  and  when  viewed  toward  the  light,  one  point 
will  appear  to  be  denser  than  the  rest.  As  these  bladders  grow  this  spot 
becomes  thicker  and  denser.  This  is  the  head  and  the  part  by  which  it  is 
attached  to  the  cyst  wall.  This  head  is  fully  developed  with  hooks  and 
suckers,  and  when  freed  becomes  the  starting  point  for  the  development 
of  the  mature  state  in  some  other  animal.  The  parasite  requires  about 
two  weeks  from  the  time  of  the  ingestion  of  the  eggs  to  develop  and  mi- 
grate through  the  intestinal  wall.  It  requires  about  eight  weeks  more  to 
develop  into  mature  cysts,  but  when  matured  as  cysts  they  may  remain  in 
this  condition  for  a long  period  of  time.  This  is  as  far  as  the  parasite 
ever  develops  in  the  sheep.  To  complete  its  life  cycle  the  sheep,  when  it  is 
killed  or  dies,  must  oe  eaten  by  a dog,  wolf  or  other  carnivorous  animal, 
the  cyst  is  ruptured  and  the  head  attaches  itself  to  the  intestinal  wall  and 
begins  to  develop  into  the  form  known  as  the  tape  worm.  The  tape 
worm  becomes  fully  developed  in  from  ten  to  twelve  weeks,  and  the  young 
worms  in  the  form  of  eggs,  and  the  segments  are  discharged  with  the 
faeces.  These  embryos  fall  upon  pasture  and  are  taken  up  by  grazing 
sheep  to  run  another  life  cycle. 

The  bladder  worms  are  likely  to  cause  peritonitis  when  migrating  in 
large  numbers  from  the  intestine  or  liver.  The  bladder  worms  that  come 


59 


to  the  surface  of  the  liver  either  result  in  destroying  their  host  or  die 
after  a couple  weeks,  the  location  not  being  favorable  for  development.  Those 
finding  their  way  into  the  folds  of  the  omentum  seem  to  cause  little  incon- 
venience. The  sheep  may  become  infected  at  any  time  of  the  year,  preferably 
during  the  grazing  season,  but  may  from  eating  hay  containing  the  excre- 
ta of  dogs.  The  young  sheep  are  susceptible,  but  those  past  five  or  six 
years  possess  a resistance  that  protects  them  even  against  intentional 
feeding. 

The  diagnosis  of  the  trouble  in  sheep  is  difficult  to  make  except  by 
post  mortem.  There  have  been  severe  losses  attributable  to  this  disease, 
but  it  is  of  less  importance  in  this  state  than  in  many  others. 

The  Treatment  must  be  wholly  preventive.  When  once  the  cysts  have 
been  formed  there  is  no  remedy  that  can  reach  them.  In  the  dog  the  tape 


The  bladder  worm.  The  mature  segments  as  found  in  the  dog.  The  head.  The 
booklets.  The  Ijladder  as  found  in  the  sheep. 

worm  may  be  expelled  by  suitable  remedies.  The  sheep  husbandman 
must  therefore  treat  the  dog,  keep  off  all  dogs,  and  burn  or  bury  carcases 
of  affected  sheep  so  that  dogs  will  not  have  access  to  them.  Areca  nut 
powdered,  two  grains  for  each  pound  of  body  weight,  or  ethereal  extract 
of  male  shield-fern  are  suitable  remedies  for  causing  their  expulsion  from 
the  dog. 


60 


THE  BLADDER  WORM  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Taenia  coenurus,  Kuch. 

The  bladder  worms  found  on  the  brains  of  sheep  resemble  those  found 
in  the  abdominal  cavity  except  that  they  are  smaller.  They  are  about  the 
size  of  hazel-nuts,  have  a fairly  tough  membrane  and  translucent  when 
held  up  to  the,  light.  The  bladder  worm  of  the  brain  is  the  cystic  state  of 
a different  species  of  tapeworm  from  that  affecting  the  abdomen.  In  this 


The  mature  bladder  worm  of  the  brain. 

case  the  eggs  a.re  taken  in  with  the  food  and  as  soon  as  the  embryos  are 
freed,  they  begin  to  migrate.  They  enter  the  circulation  and  are  carried 
by  the  blood  current  to  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  those  lodging  at 
any  point  execpt  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  die,  the  same  as  those  that 
find  way  to  the  surface  of  the  liver  in  Taenia  marginata. 

When  the  embryos,  find  lodgment  in  the  brain  they  begin  to  channel 
their  way  to  the  surface  and  in  doing  so  may  make  any  kind  of  track 


61 


straight  or  crooked.  On  arriving  at  the  surface  the  cyst  or  bladder  is 
formed.  On  being  examined  toward  strong  light,  instead  of  one  dense, 
white  body  on  the  inside  a dozen  or  more  may  be  seen.  On  opening  these 
all  appear  as  heads,  in  this  respect  differing  from  the  bladder  worms  found 
in  the  abdomen.  The  number  of  these  little  heads  reach  into  the  hun- 
dreds. 

The  adult  stage  of  this  worm  is  found  in  the  dog,  wolf,  fox  and  some 
other  carnivorous  animals.  The  eggs  are  passed  with  faeces  and  thus  find 
their  way  upon  pasture  where  they  may  be  taken  up  in  the  grazing.  The 
egg  covering  is  dissolved  and  the  embryo  freed.  It  begins  its  migration  at 
once  as  already  described.  It  remains  in  the  cyst  stage  until  the  sheep 
is  killed  or  dies  and  can  only  cause  trouble  again  if  the  brain  is  eaten  by 
some  animal  as  already  mentioned.  The  multiplication  of  heads  in  the 
cyst  stage  seems  to  be  a final  effort  to  maintain  the  species  as  the  possi- 
bilities of  a mature  worm  ever  being  developed  must  be  only  one  for  sev- 
eral million  eggs  voided,  only  one  possibility  out  of  many  that  of  those 
ingested  one  will  reach  the  brain,  and  a still  smaller  number  would  ever 
be  devoured  with  the  carcass  as  the  brain  would  be  best  protected. 

The  disease  caused  by  the  bladder  worm  is  known  as  gid,  turn  sick, 
or  staggers.  There  are  two  stages  when  the  symptoms  are  presented, 
first  when  the  embryo  is  migrating  to  the  surface.  The  injury  caused  at 
this  time  is  that  of  a character  to  be  accompanied  by  inflammation.  The 
symptoms  usually  develop  within  a couple  of  weeks  after  the  infection. 
The  sheep  are  dull,  stupid,  hot,  and  most  often  the  head  is  turned  back- 
ward. The  position  in  which  it  is  held  will  depend  in  part  on  the  seat  of 
the  inflammation.  It  may  be  extended,  or  cramped  to  one  side.  If  lying 
down  the  head  is  usually  forced  backward,  the  movements  force  the  animal 
back,  and  there  will  be  spasm  and  convulsions.  There  is  redness  of  the 
eyes.  Death  results  within  a week.  In  the  second  stage  the  symptoms 
are  due  to  pressure  of  the  cyst.  The  head  turns,  the  sheep  walk  in  a cir- 
cle and  this  gives  it  the  name  of  gid  or  turnsick.  It  acts  stupid,  trembles, 
staggers  and  has  convulsions,  refuses  to  eat  or  drink  and  dies.  Only  a 
few  recover  when  once  the  symptoms  are  well  developed. 

There  is  no  treatment  for  tfie  trouble  that  is  practical.  It  may  be 
prevented  by  destroying  all  heads  of  sheep  that  die,  or  by  treating  the 
dogs  as  indicated  for  the  Taenia  marginata. 


62 


FRINGED  TAPE  WORM. 

Thysanoscma  actinioides,  Diesing. 

The  fringed  tapeworm  is  a very  common  parasite  of  western  sheep, 
by  some  considered  to  produce  more  trouble  than  any  other  parasite  with 
the  exception  of  the  scab  mite.  It  is  found  in  greater  or  less  number  in 
the  majority  of  flocks  in  Colorado,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  Nebraska  and  ad- 
joining territory.  The  parasite  is  not  of  much  consequence  in  this  state, 
except  as  it  is  brought  in  with  feeding  stock.  Whole  car  loads  of  sheep 
brought  from  St.  Louis  and  Chicago  have  suffered  from  the  affection,  and 
as  high  as  sixty  per  cent,  have  died.  In  some  few  cases,  the  disease  has 
been  communicated  to  the  home-grown  sheep;  but,  as  a rule,  recognition 
of  trouble  has  been  so  early  or  the  flock  kept  intact  until  re-shipped  so  that 
little  spreading  has  occurred.  The  losses  trom  the  fringed  tapeworm 
are  not  due  directly  to  the  active  ravages  of  the  worm,  but  to  the  second- 
ary effects,  as  lessened  growth  of  wool,  poor  flesh,  and  inability  to  stand 
cold  weather.  This  variety  of  tapeworm  is  slow  growing,  requiring  per- 
haps seven  or  eight  months  to  mature.  They  are  usually  present  in  con- 
siderable numbers  and  have  attained  large  size  before  the  symptoms  at- 
tract attention.' 

Description 

Thysanosoma  actinioides.  Dies.  Strobila  15-30  cm.  long;  head  large, 
nearly  square  wnen  viewed  en  face,  1-1.5  mm.  broad,  placed  like  a “T” 
on  the  neck.  Suckers  very  large,  prominent;  openings  large,  elongated  or 
oval,  at  the  four  corners,  and  directed  forward  or  half  forward.  Neck  is 
exceedingly  flat,  dorso-ventrally,  and  quite  broad.  Segmentation  begins 
almost  immediately  back  of  the  head.  The  broadest  segments  measure 
5-8  mm.  wide  by  0.4-0. 6 mm.  long,  and  are  situated  about  2 cm.  from  the 
posterior  end.  The  posterior  segments  show  a decided  tendency  to  become 
longer  and  narrower.  Mature  segments  attain  a thickness  of  2.2  mm.  The 
posterior  flap 'of  the  segment  is  broken  up  into  flmbriae,  which  in  the  end 
segments  attain  the  length  of  the  segment  itself.  There  are  present  in 
each  segment  two  lateral  genital  pores,  two  ovaries,  two  vitellogene 
glands,  but  only  one  uterus.  The  latter  is  situated  in  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  median  fleld,  is  composed  of  a small  canal  witn  numerous 
blind  sacs,  and  surrounded  by  thick,  flbrous  tissue.  The  genital  canals 
pass  from  the  median  field  between  the  dorsal  and  ventral  canals,  and 


63 


dorsally  of  the  nerve.  The  dorsal  canals  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
ventral  canals,  and  connected  by  transverse  segmented  canals.* 

The  fimbriate  tapeworm  is  from  six  to  eighteen  inches  in  length  and 
found  almost  wholly  in  the  gall  ducts  and  front  part  of  the  small  intes- 
tine. The  worm  has  been  found  a half  inch  in  length  in  lambs  two 
months  old,  but  not  in  the  adult  in  lambs  under  ten  months.  The  adult 
stage  is  usually  found  in  yearlings  and  two-year-olds.  The  gorwth  is 
very  slow,  being  at  the  rate  of  only  about  one  inch  per  month,  and  after 
they  have  attained  full  size,  it  is  usually  sometime  before  they  mature. 

This  tapeworm  grows  as  do  the  other  varieties,  by  continuous  segmen- 
tation at  the  head.  Each  segment  is  complete  in  itself.  Each  contains 
two  sets  of  sexual  organs,  male  and  female  that  show  a lateral  opening  or 
pore.  The  reproduction  is  hermaproditic:  The  male  organs  are  devel- 

oped first,  when  the  segment  is  still  near  the  head.  The  ovaries  develop 
later  and  the  uteri  last.  The  development  is  complete  when  the  segments 
are  about  half  the  length  of  the  worm  from  the  head.  The  eggs  develop 
an  embryo  which  is  held  in  the  uteri.  As  the  segments  ripen,  they  break 
loose  and  are  discharged  with  the  faeces.  What  becomes  of  the  worm 
from  the  time  the  eggs  are  discharged  until  it  is  found  as  a worm  a half 
inch  in  length  in  some  sheep  is  not  known.  It  is  certain  that  the  eggs  do 
not  have  to  pass  a larval  stage  in  some  one  of  the  higher  animals.  It  is 
not  so  certain  that  they  may  not  have  an  intermediary  stage  in  some  of 
the  lower  forms.  In  some  experiments  by  Curtice,  of  infection  by  feeding- 
on  a dry  lot,  it  would  seem  that  the  infection  might  be  direct.  Experi- 
ments by  feeding  the  ripe  segments  were  not  positive  so  the  life  history  of 
the  inter  stage,  is  still  undermined. 

The  worms  when  present  in  sheep  as  a rule  show  every  stage  of  de- 
velopment indicating  that  infection  may  extend  over  nearly  the  whole 
year. 'Occasionally  all  will  be  of  nearly  the  same  size  indicating  short  pe- 
riod of  exposure.  The  symptoms  do  not  usually  develope  until  late 
in  the  fall  or  winter  when  the  number  and  bulk  have  attained  such  pro- 
portions or  mass  as  to  interfere  with  the  biliary  secretion  and  digestion. 
The  symptoms  are  lack  of  nourishment,  undersize;  hide  bound,  large 

*C.  W.  Stiles.  A Revision  of  the  Adult  Cestodes  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and 
Allied  Animals.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry:  pp.  .^>8.  Washington;  1893. 


G4 


head,  digestive  disturbance  due  to  intestinal  irritation  and  obstructed 
bile,  grinding  the  teeth,  lagging  behind  the  flock,  unusual  attention  to  sup- 
posed harm,  as  dogs  and  strangers,  foolish  actions  and  sometimes  slovenly 
gait.  These  symptoms  may  all  be  accounted  for  by  the  lack  of  nourish- 
ment, and  impoverished  blood. 

The  Treatment  of  the  fringed  tapeworm  is  not  very  satisfactory.  Med- 
icinal agents  become  much  diluted  before  reaching  the  small  intestine  and 
none  can  be  made  to  reach  those  in  the  bile  duct.  A remedy  that  is  rec- 
ommended is  a solution  of  copper  sulphate  commonly  known  as  blue  stone. 
One  pound  (av.)  of  clean  bluestone  crystals  is  dissolved  in  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water,  and  whep  dissolution  is  complete,  seven  and  four-fifths  gal- 
lons are  added.  The  dose  of  this  solution  is  about  two  thirds  of  an  ounce 
for  lambs  one  months  old,  one  and  one-third  ounces  for  lambs  two  months 
old,  two  ounces  for  lambs  three  months  old  two  and  two-thirds  ounces  for 
lambs  four  months  old,  three  ounces  for  lambs  five  months  old  and  older. 
Care  must  be  used  in  measuring  the  parts  in  mixing  up  the  preparation  and 
in  getting  the  size  of  the  dose.  Copper  sulphate  is  quite  poisonous  and 
must  be  handled  with  care.* 

The  sheep  are  prepared  for  dosing  by  keeping  them  off  feed  and  water 
for  fifteen  or  eighteen  hours  and  holding  them  off  for  a few  hours  after 
ward.  The  medicine  is  best  administered  by  means  of  a long  necked  rub- 
ber syringe  and  discharging  the  amount  well  back  in  the  mouth.  Care 
must  be  used  lest  some  of  it  be  inhaled  and  cause  pneumonia. 

The  writer  has  not  had  personal  experience  in  dosing  such  affected 
sheep  and  the  recent  report  upon  the  subject  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  is  rather  negative. 

THE  BROAD  TAPEWORM. 

Moniezia  expansa;  Rud. 

The  broad  tapeworm  is  the  variety  that  more  nearly  Alls  the  popular 
conception  of  what  a tapeworm  should  be.  It  is  a long  worm  of  twelve  to 
fifteen  feet  and  a half  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  breadth.  It  is  of 
only  ocasional  occurrence,  however,  and  as  far  as  known  not  the  cause 
of  any  serious  losses  in  this  state. 


*C.  W.  Stiles.  The  Inspection  of  Meats  for  Animal  Parasites.  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry.  Pp.  133:  Washington.  1898. 


65 


\ 


r.. 


/ r,\;v,vv..'./,\.'/.v.v\v..-.‘,‘.'.V'< 


P'ririKPd  tape  worin.  Adult  natural  sizx-.  ' lOdue  and  side  views  of  the  head.  Enlarged 
mature  .segment. 

Hroad  tape  worm.  End  and  side  views  of  the  liead  and  a few  segments. 


5 


66 


Description. 

Moniezia  expansa  R.  (i8io).  Strobila  attains  4-5  m.  in  length;  ante- 
rior portion  usually  whitish,  posterior  portion  generally  yellowish.  Head 
0.36-0.7  mm.  in  diameter,  obtuse,  more  or  less  square,  slightly  lobed;  suck- 
ers distinctly  raised,  apertures  directed  diagonally  forward.  Segments  al- 
ways much  broader  than  long;  and  segments  attain  16  mm.  in  wddth  ana 
are  quite  thick.  Topography  of  nerves,  longitudinal  canals,  genital  ca- 
nals, and  female  glands  similar  to  M.  planissima:  (pores  double  situated  in 
in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  lateral  margin,  vagina  and  cirrus  on  the  same 
transverse  plane  on  the  right,  vagina  ventral,  cirrus  dorsal;  left  side;  vagi- 
na dorsal,  cirrus  ventral;  genital  canals  pass  dorsally  of  the  longitudinal 
canals  and  nerves;)  testicles  usually  arranged  in  a quadrangle,  rarely  in 
two  triangles  except  in  the  younger  segments.  Interproglottidal  glands 
localized  around  blind  sacs  which  open  between  segments.  Ova  50-60  // 
bulb  of  pyriform  apparatus  20  * 

The  complete  life  history  of  this  tapeworm  is  not  known:  what  be- 
comes of  the  worm  from  the  time  the  ripe  segments  pass  out  of  the  body 
with  the  faeces  and  what  changes  it  undergoes  until  it  infects  some 
other  sheep  have  not  been  determined.  The  presumption  is  that  the 
eggs  freed  from  the  broken  down  segments  are  eaten  by  some  insect,  snail, 
worm,  or  other  low  form  of  animal,  that  the  tapeworm  passes  through  the 
cystic  stage  and  later  these  insects,  worms  or  whatever  they  may  be  are 
swallowed  by  the  sheep  while  feeding  and  the  cyst  set  free  in  the  intes- 
tinal tract.  It  is  certain  that  in  the  case  there  is  an  intermediary  host, 
that  it  is  some  low  form  of  life.  Sheep  kept  shut  up  in  stables  have  been 
found  to  become  affected  but  only  rarely  so.  In  fection  usually  occurs 
upon  pasture.  Experiments  made  to  infect  sheep  by  direct  feeding,  of 
ripe  segments  have  not  been  successful.  They  have  become  infected  when 
fed  the  segments  and  eggs  in  high,  dry  lots,  but  in  all  cases  there  was  op- 
portunity for  infection.  The  fact  that  this  tapeworm  is  found  rather 
rarely  in  winter  and  spring  while  the  sheep  are  upon  dry  feed,  and  in 
stall-fed  sheep,  and  that  it  is  most  often  found  in  late  summer  and  fall, 
shows  that  natural  infection  is  associated  with  the  grazing. 

*C.  W.  Stiles.  A Revision  of  the  Adult  Cestodes  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and 
Allied  Animals.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  pp.  34.  1893. 


67 


The  tapeworm  disease  affects  lambs  and  young  sheep  more  often  than 
the  older.  The  young  seem  to  be  especially  susceptible  and  the  old  to 
have  a natural  resistance.  The  growth  of  the  worm  is  very  rapid,  as 
adults  have  been  found  in  lambs  three  months  old.  After  attaining  the 
full  growth  they  remain  some  time  before  shedding  their  segments.  In 
the  case  of  this  species  practically  the  whole  body  is  shed  at  about  the 
same  time  leaving  only  the  head  and  three  or  four  inches  of  the  neck. 
When  these  begni  to  grow  the  sheep  may  have  attained  such  an  age  as 
to  resist  the  inroads,  and  the  heads  be  eventually  expelled.  The  number  of 
worms  present  may  vary  from  one  to  more  than  a hundred,  but  it  is  not 
usual  to  find  more  than  a dozen. 

The  Symptoms  are  those  of  lack  of  nourishment.  The  sheep  are  usual- 
ly infected  for  some  time  before  attention  is  directed  to  them.  They  be- 
come thin  in  fiesh,  the  wool  is  white  and  without  yolk,  lips  and  eyes  pale, 
flanks  tucked  up,  the  appetite  is  likely  to  be  depraved  and  the  sheep  eat 
large  quantities  or  unusual  articles.  It  frequently  happens  too  that  there 
is  diarrhea.  The  sheep  are  not  strong,  lag  behind  the  balance  of  the  flock, 
and  are  easily  affected  by  cold.  The  whole  appearance  is  that  of  absolute 
loss  of  blood.  A postive  diagnosis  cannot  be  made  without  seeing  the 
segments  of  the  w'orms  in  the  faeces  or  by  holding  a post-mortem. 

The  sheep  begin  to  improve  as  soon  as  the  worms  shed  their  seg- 
ments. 

The  medicinal  treatment  is  not  very  satisfactory.  Many  preparations 
have  been  used  and  recommended,  but  the  more  learned  about  them 
by  direct  experiments,  the  less  effective  they  seem  to  be. 

LIVER  FLUKE. 

Fasciola  hepatica;  Ifinn. 

The  liver  fluke  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  this  state.  As  far  as 
known  to  the  writer  only^six  flocks  have  been  affected  in  the  past  ten  years 
and  in  these  the  infection  was  brought  onto  them  from  the  south-west. 
There  is  no  fear  of  permanent  infection  of  our  pasture. 

The  liver  fluke  is  a broad  flat  worm  found  in  the  liver  of  sheep, 
goats  and  cattle.  It  is  described  as  follows: 

Description. 

Fasciola  hepatica.  L.  Body;  ])ale  brown,  leaf  like,  flattened.  18-15  mm. 


G8 


long  by  4-13  mm.  broad.  The  anterior  3-4  mm.  forms  a rather  thick,  con- 
ical portion  which  is  followed  by  a large  flat,  leaf-like  body  of  elongate, 
oval  form  this  latter  widens  rapidly  to  the  maximum  breadth,  and  then 
decreases,  gradually  in  width  to  the  posterior  end  which  is  bluntly  point- 
ed; cuticle  is  covered  with  numerous  spines  placed  side  by  side  in 
alternating  rows;  oral  sucker  is  anterior,  round  and  terminal,  but  inclines 
ventral;  acetabulum  about  3-4  mm.  caudad  of  oral  sucker,  with  which  it 
closely  agrees  in  size;  genital  pore  median,  about  half  way  between  oral 


Liver  fluke.* 


sucker  and  acetabulum;  oesophagus  rarely  over  1-1-Y2  times  as  long  as 
the  pharynx;  intestine  dentritic;  cirrus  frequently  extended  from  pore  and 
then  recurved;  testicles  profusely  branched,  situated  for  the  greater  part 
posterior  to  transverse  vitello-duct.  Vulva  is  at  side  of  cirrus;  uterus 
forms  a rosette  with  its  numerous  coils,  and  is  frequently  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  as  a dark-brown  spot,  immediately  posterior  to  the  acetabelum; 
ovary  branched,  anterior  of  transverse  vitello  duct;  vitellogene  glands 
profusely  branched,  and  occupy  the  entire  margin  of  the  body  from  aceta- 
bulum to  posterior  extremity;  they  lie  dorsally  as  well  as  ventrally  of  the 
intestine,  becoming  wider  posterially.  Oviparous. 


From  Bulletin  No.  J8.  Texas  Experiment  Station. 


69 


Eggs;  oval,  0.13-0,14  mm.  long  by  0.075  to  0.09  mm.  broaa;  miracidiiim 
conical,  ciliated  with  oval  papillae,  two  cup  shaped  eye  spots,  rudimentary 
intestine;  metamorphosis  (sporo  cyst,  redia,  cercariae)  take  place  in  small 
snails  of  the  genius  Linneae;  L.,  trucatula,  and  others.)  Cercaria  whitish, 
owing  to  excessive  development  of  capsule  glands;  encysts  upon  plants.* 

The  life  history  of  the  liver  fluke  is  one  of  great  interest.  The  eggs 
are  produced  in  immense  numbers  and  pass  through  the  gall  duct  to  the 
intestine  and  out  with  the  faeces.  Those  that  fall  in  favorable  places  as 
puddles  of  water  escape  from  the  shell.  They  are  very  delicate,  covered 
with  hair  to  aid  in  swimming  and  have  a proboscis  to  puncture  the  body 
of  a variety  of  small  snails.  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  And  a snail  in 
a day  or  two  otherwise  it  will  die.  If  it  should  And  a snail  it  punctures 
the  body  to  the  respiratory  tract,  and  becomes  encysted.  It  is  here  known 
as  the  sporocyst  and  may  divide  into  several  bodies,  flve  to  eight  and 
these  are  develop  into  rediae.  The  rediae  are  about  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch  long.  These  raediae  are  liberated  from  the  sac  and  these  in  turn 
develop  within  themselves  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bodies  known  as 
cercariae  and  it  is  these  latter  that  escape  from  the  suail.  The  cercariae 
after  some  slight  change  become  encrysted  on  grass  or  wherever  it  may 
happen  to  be.  In  this  stage  will  resist  drying,  temperature  changes, 
etc.,  and  is  the  form  in  which  it  is  swallowed  by  the  sheep.  The  swal- 
lowed cyst  has  the  shell  digested  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  and 
the  young  soon  finds  its  way  to  the  liver  where  it  becomes  an  adult  and 
the  process  is  repeated.  By  some  form  of  migration  the  flukes  may  And 
their  way  into  lungs.  The  eggs  seem  to  be  passed  through  a period  of  a 
month  or  more  during  the  summer,  the  first  development  of  the  offspring 
takes  place  in  the  summer  and  the  cyst  comes  on  later  in  the  fall. 

The  Symptoms  of  fluke  disease  are  not  all  recognized  by  the  stockman. 
There  is  a period  of  migration  from  the  intestine  to  the  liver  lasting  dur- 
ing the  summer  that  is  attended  by  little  disturbance.  During  the  late 
fall  and  winter  the  affected  sheep  show  a lack  of  thrift,  disinclination  to 
eat  heartily;  a paleness  about  the  eyes  and  lips,  yellow  tinge  in  the  skin; 


♦Stiles,  Ch.  Warden  and  Hassell,  Albert — 

Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine  and  Veterinary  Archives,  XV.  pp. 
302,  1894. 


70 


there  may  be  fullness  between  the  jaws,  the  wool  is  dry,  brittle  and  easily 
pulled.  The  third  stage  follows  the  second  and  not  easily  separated  from 
it.  The  animal  looses  flesh  rapidly,  becomes  emaciated,  the  appetite  keeps 
up  but  the  most  marked  character  is  the  wasting.  The  fourth  stage  is 
that  of  natural  migration  of  the  parasite  late  in  the  spring,  and  sponta- 
neous recovery.  The  sheep  as  a rule  die  in  the  second  or  third  stage  if 
badly  infected. 

No  remedies  are  servicable  in  this  disease. 

THE  TWISTED  STOMACH  WORM. 

Strongylus  contortus,  Rud. 

Tne  stomach  worm,  or  twisted  stomach  worm,  Strongylus  contortus, 
Rud.,  is  a very  common  parasite  of  sheep.  From  an  economical  stand- 
point, it  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  parasites  in  this  state.  It  has 
caused  the  death  of  as  many  as  85,000  sheep  in  a single  year  in  this 
state.  Probably  the  average  annual  loss  that  may  be  attributed  to  this 
cause  will  be  about  30,000  head.  The  parasite  is  to  be  found  in  greater 
or  less  numbers  in  nearly  all  flocks,  but  it  is  only  when  they  occur  in 
large  numbers  or  occur  in  connection  with  some  other  disease  that  they 
cause  great  loss.  Lambs  are  particularly  liable  to  the  affection,  those  hav- 
ing passed  the  suckling  age  and  older  sheep  are  better  able  to  withstand 
the  attack. 

The  Strongylus  contortus  is  a small  thread-like  worm.  The  female  is 
from  one-half  to  about  one  inch  in  length  and  the  male  from  three  eights 
to  one-half  inch  in  length.  The  males  are  thicker  in  proportion  to  their 
length  than  the  females.  The  bodies  vary  from  a reddish  brown  to  white 
depending  upon  the  fullness  of  the  intestine  with  blood,  which  has  been 
abstracted  from  the  stomach  wall.  The  bodies  are  pointed,  more  at  the 
tail  than  at  the  head.  The  mouth  is  located  slightly  behind  the  fore  end 
and  is  marked  by  two  small  eminences.  The  female  is  made  conspicuous 
by  two  white  spiral  tubes  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body 
which  are  the  uteri.  They  appear  so  promiently  because  of  the  contrast 
with  the  intestinal  contents  . It  is  these  that  give  the  parasite  the  name 
rather  than  the  shape  of  he  body  as  a w’hole. 

The  parasite  is  easily  recognizable  in  the  stomach  of  a recently 

I 

killed  sheep,  but  are  easily  digested  by  the  stomach  fluids  and  therefore 


Twisted  stomach  worms.  Adult  female.  Adult  male.  The  head  showlnjc  the  barb. 
Small  worms  are  natural  size. 


72 


frequently  escape  observation  if  a post-mortem  be  made  late.  In  the 
recent  case  the  worm  will  be  found  closely  attached  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. In  a post-mortem  deferred  for  some  time  the  worms  will  be 
loose  in  the  stomach  contents,  of  a grej^er  color  and  so  much  resemble 
the  fibers  of  plants  that  to  the  untrained  eye  they  may  escape  observation, 
even  when  hundreds  are  present.  The  worm  may  be  found  in  very  stage 
in  the  fourth  stomach.  They  are  found  in  greater  numbers  in  the  summer 
and  early  fall  than  at  other  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  life  history  of  this  parasite  seems  to  be  quite  simple.  The  eggs 
contain  a young  embryo  when  deposited,  and  pass  through  the  intestines 
and  fall  upon  the  pasture  with  the  excrement.  If  they  be  kept  moist  or 
find  their  way  into  stagnant  water  they  undergo  such  transformations 
as  are  necessary  outside  the  body.  The  extent  of  these  changes  is  not  well 
known.  The  worm  may  then  be  taken  up  by  some  other  sheep  while 
eating  or  drinking  the  surface  water.  The  amount  of  moisture  retained 
on  grass  after  rains  or  dews  is  sufficient  to  sustain  them  if  the  grass  be  able 
to  shade  the  ground.  The  young  are  killed  by  drying  which  accounts  for  the 
lessened  disease  on  high  ground  and  in  dry  seasons.  It  is  believed  that  it  is 
necessary  that  the  eggs  pass  out  of  the  body  and  undergo  some  change 
and  that  they  cannot  hatch  and  mature  in  the  stomach  of  the  same  ani- 
mal in  which  they  were  deposited.  Such  being  the  case  it  would  seem 
that  the  disease  is  communicated  only  through  feeding  upon  infected  pas- 
tures or  drinking  surface  water  that  had  become  foul  through  excrement. 
The  reason  that  lambs  are  more  seriously  affected  than  old  sheep  is  prob- 
ably due  in  part  to  a milk  diet  with  their  feed  and  to  a more  tender  con- 
dition of  the  stomach  wall. 

The  Symptoms  of  the  presence  of  stomach  worms  are  not  distinctive; 
that  is,  taken  as  individual  cases  an  absolute  diagnosis  could  not  be 
made.  The  affected  sheep  show  lack  of  thrift,  inclination  to  move  slowly, 
they  are  stiff  in  one  or  more  legs,  the  back  is  arched 

and  to  spend  considerable  time  in  the  shade.  The  appetite  is  poor  or 
they  will  eat  unusual  objects.  The  thirst  is  increased,  there  is  often  grind- 
ing of  the  teeth,  and  black  diarrhea.  Examined  closely  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  eyes  and  the  lips  are  pale.  These  are  the  symptoms  in  the 
typical  case  and  as  a rule  it  runs  a course  of  several  days  or  a few  weeks. 
In  the  acute  cases  these  symptoms  are  greatly  aggravated  and  death  re- 


73 


suits  in  a few  days.  In  very  acute  forms  death  may  result  from  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach  as  a result  of  a sudden  attack  of  the  parasites  upon 
that  organ.  I have  seen  a few  cases  in  which  the  affected  animal  exhibited 
no  recognizable  symptom  in  the  morning  and  be  found  dead  in  the  field  at 
noon.  In  addition  to  these  symptoms  the  history  of  several  animals 
being  affected  will  often  have  much  weight  in  deciding  the  diagnosis.  A 
post-mortem  upon  a recent  case  will  give  an  absolute  diagnosis. 

Treatment.  This  must  be  divided  into  preventive  and  curative  meas- 
ures. As  a preventive  measure  we  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the 
eggs  fall  upon  the  grass,  and  that  they  will  be  killed  by  drying.  When 
the  disease  is  suspected  or  known  to  exist  in  a flock,  we  can  alternate 
the  use  of  pasture  fields  every  third  day  in  very  wet  seasons,  avoid  the 
use  of  low  pastures  or  too  short  pastures,  at  any  time;  to  give  a part  dry 
feed  ration  or  hay  in  order  to  increase  the  hard  woody  stomach  content 
and  later  in  the  summer  to  pasture  a part  of  the  time  in  the  corn  field. 
Wnere  the  flocks  are  small  and  it  is  feasible  to  do  so,  I find  that  this  latter 
is  a particularly  good  practice,  and  has  given  excellent  results.  The  weeds 
and  such  grass  as  may  be  present  in  the  corn  will  not  be  infected  and  the 
droppings  will  fall  upon  bare  ground  so  that  no  infection  can  take  place. 
Here  sheep  will  do  little  damage  to  the’corn. 

The  medicinal  treatment  is  a nuisance  tp  administer  and  unsatisfac- 
tory in  results.  It  requires  the  administration  of  the  medicine  to  each 
individual  and  repeatedly.  The  worms  being  located  in  the  fourth  stom- 
ach can  not  be  reached  oy  the  medicinal  agent  until  it  becomes  so  much 
diluted  that  its  efficiency  is  greatly  reduced. 

A vermifuge  powder  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Areca  nut,  powdered,  one-half  pound. 

Worm  seed,  powdered,  one-half  pound. 

Gentian,  powdered,  one-fourth  pound. 

Sulphur,  powdered,  one-fourth  pound. 

Sulphate  of  iron,  powdered,  one-fourth  pound. 

Mix  thoroughly  and  give  with  meal^  or  crushed  grain  at  the  rate  of  an 
ounce  to  ten  or  a dozen  lambs,  or  six  old  sheep.  This  should  be  done 
in  the  morning  after  the  sheep  have  been  kept  up  in  a lot  over  night  and 
it  is  well  to  hold  them  from  pasture  for  a couple  of  hours  after  its  admin- 
istration. The  dose  should  be  rei)eated  about  every  third  evening  for  a 


74 


couple  of  weeks.  In  flocks  not  too  badly  infected  or  where  it  was  almost 
necessary  that  some  preparation  should  be  used  with  the  food,  I have  found 
the  foregoing  to  be  the  best  of  a large  number  tried.  Diseases  requiring 
vigorous  treatment,  I add  two  ounces  santonine  to  the  above  amount. 

There  have  been  a very  large  number  of  remedies  proposed  for  the 
treatment  of  stomach  worms,  but  in  practice  there  have  been,  but  few 
found  to  be  efficacious.  One  of, the  most  largely  used  agents  is  an  emul- 
sion of  turpentine  in  milk  or  oil.  An  emulsion  of  an  ounce  of  turpentine 
to  a pint  of  milk  freshly  prepared  and  from  two  to  four  ounces  admin- 
istered depending  upon  the  size  of  the  lamb.  The  emulsion  with  oil  is 
made  by  adding  one  ounce  of  turpentine  to  two  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil 
and  giving  from  one-half  to  one  ounce  of  the  mixture.  The  emulsion 
with  either  milk  or  oil  should  be  freshly  prepared  and  well  shaken  up  prior 
to  drawing  off  the  dose. 

Gasoline  is  a newer  remedy  recommended  for  use.  Each  dose  must 
be  mixed  separately  in  linseed  oil  or  milk,  and  the  quantity  to  be  used  is 
a teaspoonful  of  gasoline  for  the  lamb  or  a tablespoonful  for  the  sheep,  in 
an  ounce  of  the  oil  or  two  ounces  of  milk.  This  treatment  has  been  most 
highly  recommended  by  some  investigators  and  many  sheep-men  in  the 
past  few  years.  Our  personal  experience  has  not  been  with  such  favor- 
able results. 

In  the  giving  of  turpentine  or  gasoline  the  sheep  should  be  kept  in  an 
enclosure  away  from  feed  over  night  and  the  dose  administered  in  the 
morning  and  no  food  allowed  for  a couple  of  hours  afterward.  The  dose 
can  best  be  administered  with  a syringe  having  a soft  rubber  tube  that  can 
be  passed  well  back  into  the  mouth.  The  sheep  should  be  held  in  the 
standing  position  and  the  head  should  not  be  held  up  as -it  increases  the 
danger  of  the  fluid  passing  into  the  lungs.  For  a complete  treatment  these 
remedies  will  need  to  be  repeated  each  day  for  three  days.  One  treat- 
ment often  gives  such  good  results  that  the  repetition  is  not  made. 

The  latest  treatment  of  which  much  has  been  said  is  coal  tar  creosote. 
This  is  administered  as  a one  per  cent  solution  in  water,  the  dose  being 
about  two  ounces  for  a lamb.  This  has  given  us  better  results  with  a 
single  treatment  than  any  other. 


75 

INTESTINAL  WORMS. 

Strongylus  vsntricosus,  Riicl. 

This  species  is  found  associated  with  Strongylus  fielicollis  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  small  intestine.  It  is  generally  found  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 
It  is  very  small  and  so  far  as  known,  of  little  consequence. 

Description  Male,  6 mm.;  female,  13  mm.  Body  very  small  and 
comparatively  stout.  Males  and  young  females  usually  spirally  coiled; 
body  of  old  female  straight,  with  cephalic  end  coiled;  skin  transversely 
striate,  marked  by  fourteen  longitudinal  lines;  the  larger  standing  at 
equal  interspaces  on  the  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces,  the  two  smaller 
standing  close  together  on  the  sides.  The  crossings  of  the  striae  and  long- 
itudinal lines  make  pits  which  are  quite  characteristic.  Head  little  larg- 
er than  neck,  but  hemispherical  and  continuous  with  the  cylindrical  infla- 
tion of  the  neck.  No  head  or  neck  papillae  visible.  Mouth  terminal,  very 
small  and  round.  The  end  of  the  head  is  furnished  with  a spherical  cap- 
shaped chitinous  piece.  Other  oral  armature  apparently  absent.  Inflated 
portion  of  head  about  one-fifth  the  length  of  oseophagus.  Unicellar  glands 
not  apparent.  Male  about  one-half  the  length  of  female;  bursa  conical 
and  bilobed,  the  ventral  membrane  being  narrow,  the  dorsal  wide;  ventral 
costae  not  separate;  smaller  than  the  ventro-lateral  which  is  stout;  lat- 
eral widely  separate  and  apparently  formed  of  three  nearly  equal  costae; 
dorso-lateral  slender;  dorsal  notched  at  the  end  and  giving  off  laterally  a 
very  short  side  branch.  Spicula  0.36  mm.  long,  short  and  stout,  and  mar- 
gined oy  a fringe-bearing  sinuous  membrane.  They  are  tipped  by  a soft 
pad-like  expansion  of  the  membrane.  Female  characterized  by  a swelling 
at  the  vulva  which  gives  the  species  its  name.  This  character  is  more 
pronounced  in  older  specimens.  Vulva  from  two-ninths  to  one-third  of  the 
entire  length  of  the  female  from  the  tail.  Uteri  directed  anteriorly  and 
posterioraly  from  the  vagina.  Ova  0.13  mm.  long,  0.07  mm.  wide,  compara- 
tively large,  and  found  in  all  stages  of  segmentation,  embryo  not  observed. 

Strongylus  filicollis,  Rud. 

This  is  one  of  the  very  small  worms  affecting  the  intestine  of  lambs 
and  sheep.  Taken  by  itself  it  probably  does  little  harm.  It  may  be  found 
in  consideraable  numbers  in  the  fall.  It  is  so  delicate  that  it  would  escape 
observation  from  the  ordinarv  observer. 


Stron^rylus  filicollis.  1.  Male.  2.  Female.  :i.  Head. 
4.  Bursa.  StroiiKylus  vertricosus.  5.  Male.  6 . Female 


1 


77 


Description.  Male,  8 to  15  mm.;  female,  16  to  24  mm.  Body  very 
small;  cephalic  end,  thread  like  and  tortuous;  caudal  end,  especiany  of  fe- 
male, thick  and  straight.  Skin  marked  by  longitudinal  lines  standing  at 
about  equal  distances  apart.  Head  very  small,  subspherical,  continuous, 
with  a swollen  cylindrical  neck;  the  length  of  the  inflated  portion  is  about 
one-fourth  that  of  the  oesophagus.  Four  head  papillae  visible;  the  lateral 
papillae  are  probably  present  but  can  not  be  easily  made  out.  Mouth  ter- 
minal; apparently  without  chitinous  armature.  Oesophagus  linear  spatu- 
late;  unicellar  gland  ducts  present.  Position  of  ventral  cleft  not  deter- 
mined. 

Male;  Aliform  and  uniform  in  size  throughout  its  length;  bursa  strong- 
ly bilooed;  the  membrane  being  well  filled' on  the  dorsum  but  absent  on 
the  ventrum;  cannot  be  spread  without  tearing;  costae  generally  synimet- 
rically  arranged,  ventral  slightly  separated;  ventro-lateral  either  joined 
to  lateral  or  ventral;  lateral  scarcely  separated;  dorso-lateral  joined  to 
the  dorsal,  dorsal  notched  and  with  the  dorso-lateral  form  a stem,  the 
two  pairs  uniting  to  form  the  dorsal  stem;  the  lateral  costae  are  the 
longest.  Spicula  1.5  mm.  long  cylindrical,  very  slender  and  dark  colored; 
their  points  are  tipped  with  an  oval  inflation  of  the  membrane  and  are 
more  or  less  flrmly  attached. 

Female:  Tail  obtuse;  vulva  situated  about  one-third  of  the  entire 
length  of  the  worm  from  the  tail;  body  of  the  egg-bearing  female  en- 
larged in  front  of  the  vulva  by  the  swollen  and  crowded  uterus.  Uteri 
directed  each  way  from  the  vagina,  and  filled  with  comparatively  few  and 
large  eggs  in  all  stages  of  segmentation.  Eggs,  0.17  mm.  long,  0.08  mm. 
wide,  ovoid;  laid  in  the  morula  or  gastrula  stages.  Embryo  not  observed. 

Dochmius  cernuus,  Creplin. 

This  is  a rather  stout  parasite  of  the  small  intestine  and  may  be  mis- 
taken for  the  twisted  stomach  worm  by  those  not  accustomed  to  examin- 
ing for  parasites.  It  is  fairly  stout  and  is  found  attached  to  the  mucous 
wall,  as  it  feeds  upon  the  blood.  This  worm  is  rarely  found  in  large  num- 
bers, otherwise  it  might  become  a serious  parasite.  It  probably  causes 
more  losses  now  than  is  attributed  to  it. 

Description  Female,  20  to  26  mm.;  male  13  to  17  mm.  Body  very 
dark  colored  when  fresh;  whitened  when  preserved;  attenuate  towards  the 
ends.  Head  curved,  the  mouth  being  directed  dorsally.  Mouth  round. 


78 


smaller  than  the  oral  surface  and  opens  into  an  ovoid  dark-colored  capsule 
About  the  opening  stand  four  teeth,  two  on  each  side,  their  base  being  sunk 
into  the  capsule  and  their  free  edges  projecting  into  ‘the  cavity.  The  ven- 
tral are  the  larger,  thicker  and  more  opaque;  their  edges  form  an  unbroken 
sinuous  line.  At  the  caudal  opening  of  the  capsule  are  one  pair  of  ventral 
and  a single  dorsal  tooth;  the  latter  is  conical,  very  large,  and  rises  to 
near  the  mouth.  In  the  pharyngeal  opening  are  six  very  small  club- 
shaped,  spinuous,  chitinous  appendages  of  the  oesophageal  supports  or 
rods;  they  seem  to  be  jointed.  There  are  six  papillae,  dorsal,  lateral,  and 
ventral  pairs.  The  lateral  may  give  off  a branch  on  the  dorsal  side.  There 
are  two  lateral  neck  papillae,  nearly  opposite  the  middle  of  the  oesopha- 
gus; the  ventral  cleft  is  situated  a little  anterior  to  a line  connecting  the 
latter.  Unicellar  neck  glands  quite  plain. 

Male:  Bursa  funnel-shaped;  will  not  spread  without  tearing;  costae 

unsymmetrical  as  to  form;  ventral  pair  not  separated;  lateral  widely  sep- 
arated; dorsal;  notched;  dorso-lateral  unequal  in  length  and  differently 
attached  to  the  dorsal  stem.  Spicula  0.6  mm.  long,  aculeate,  fenestrated, 
and  provided  with  a narrow  membranous  margin. 

Female:  Vulva  about  three-fifths  of  entire  length  of  the  body  from 

the  end  of  the  tail.  Vagina  opening  at  right  angles  to  the  side  of  the 
body.  Uteri,  lying  one  anterior,  the  other  posterior;  each  forms  an  S-Uke 
loop;  the  anterior  ovary  is  directed  towards  the  tail,  and  with  the  poste- 
rior forms  an  intricate  sinuous  net  work  surrounding  the  intestine.  Eggs 
elliptical;  laid  in  the  morula  stage;  length  0.06  mm.;  width  0.03  mm. 

THE  NODULAR  DISEASE. 

Oesophagostoma  Columbianum,  Cur. 

During  the  winter  and  early  spring  many  sheep,  particularly  breeding 
ewes  die,  and  on  post-mortem  show  a large  number  of  nodules  on  the  in- 
testines. These  nodules  are  most  abundant  at  the  upper  end  of  the  large 
intestine,  but  may  be  found  at  any  place  between  the  stomach  and  rec- 
tum. These  nodules  are  often  taken  to  be  tubercular,  as  they  contain  a 
yellowish  or  greenish  cheesy  matter.  This  peculiar  disease  has  not  been 
known  for  very  many  years  and  seems  to  be  gaining  its  foothold  quite 
rapidly. 

The  nodular  disease  is  caused  by  a very  small  intestinal  worm.  The 
worm  is  very  small,  from  only  one-eighth  to  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in 


5 

fi 

' i 

i !!■ 


1 

j 4 


\ Dochmius  ceriums.  1.  Fenuile.  2. 
V,  03soi)hii>,'ostonia  Columliiaiium. 

5.  Hursa.  0.  Cyst. 


Male. 

Male.  4.  Head 


3 


Nodular  disease  of  the  intestines. 


81 

length.  They  inhabit  the  front  part  of  the  large  intestine  in  particular, 
but  when  present  in  very  large  numbers  they  lodge  in  almost  any  place. 
The  eggs  are  laid  and  passed  out  of  the  intestine  with  the  faeces  to  fall 
upon  tne  pasture  and  infect  another  through  the  food  or  drink.  It  appears 
as  though  some  of  the  eggs  may  be  matured  in  the  intestine  and  the  young 
pass  into  the  intestinal  wall  and  develop  very  slowly.  This  occurs  most- 
ly in  the  latter  part  of  summer  or  fall,  and  these  young  require  the  whole 
of  the  winter  to  make  their  change.  It  is  apparently  a method  of  slow 
development  provided  by  nature  to  insure  the  carrying  of  the  species 
from  one  season  to  the  next  All  classes  of  sheep  may  be  more  or  less 
affected  but  apparently  old  sheep  suffer  more  than  lambs.  The  loss  is  ob- 
served more  especially  in  breeding  ewes  because  the  general  nutrition  is 
interfered  with  at  or  about  lambing  time.  The  extra  nutrition  required 
due  to  advanced  gestation  is  too  great  and  death  results. 

While  the  worm  remains  in  the  intestinal  tract  it  passes  unnoticed 
owing  to  its  very  small  size  and  if  it  produces  any  harm  at  that  time  it 
has  not  been  recognized.  When  the  young  pass  into  the  Intestinal  wall, 
they  become  encysted  and  are  marked  by  small  whitish  spots.  Their  pres- 
ence causes  irritation  and  a local  inflammation  with  debris  deposit  This 
gradually  increases  and  the  very  small  cyst  develops  into  a nodule  the 
size  of  a millet  seed  to  that  of  a grain  of  corn.  The  older  the  cyst  the 
harder  will  be  the  content  in  that  part  while  in  the  vicinity  of  the  worm 
the  content  is  softer.  The  parasite  lives  on  this  debris.  While  the  sheep 
have  grass  or  succulent  food  these  nodules  remain  fairly  soft  and  interfer- 
ence with  nutrition  is  not  great.  When  the  sheep  receive  hay,  straw,  fod- 
der and  grain  the  contents  of  these  nodules  become  dryer  and  often 
calcareous  and  they  may  add  some  obstruction  to  the  bowel  as  well  as 
otherwise  interfere  with  nutrition.  When  the  worm  emerges  from  the 
nodule  to  the  intestine  the  irritation  stops  and  the  content  is  absorbed. 

THE  CAECUM  WORM. 

Trichoceohalus  affinis,  Rud. 

On  opening  the  caecum  of  sheep  at  slaughter  houses  or  upon  post- 
mortem, there  is  nearly  always  to  be  found  a few  whip-like  worms  from 
one  and  one-half  to  two  and  a quarter  inches  long.  The  body  or  handle 
portion  is  only  one-fourth  to  one-third  the  total  length  and  the  remainder 


83 


is  very  delicate.  This  worm  is  to  be  found  in  small  numbers  in  nearly  all 
sheep  during  the  summer  and  fall,  but  oftener  can  not  be  found  in  late 
winter  and  spring.  In  the  ordinary  numbers  it  causes  no  trouble  so  far 
as  known,  but  possibly  does  when  present  in  the  large  numbers  sometimes 
seen. 

Description. 

The  parasite  is  described  as  follows.  Male  and  female  about  equal, 
40  to  70  mm.  long.  Body  whip-like  possessing  a short,  stout,  caudal  end, 
12  to  18  mm.  long,  and  a very  thin  hair-like  cephalic  end  of  twice  this 
length.  The  latter  contains  the  oesophagus  and  intestine;  the  former  the 
reproductive  organs  and  intestine. 

The  head  is  very  small  and  thin,  without  noticable  papillae  or  chiti- 
nous  armature.  It  is  said  to  sometimes  have  two  vesicular,  transparent, 
wing-like  inflations.  Skin  of  the  neck  transversely  striate,  and  when 
highly  magnified  shows  a serration  of  the  sides  indicating  cuticular  lay- 
ers which  overlap  each  other  like  shingles  on  a roof.  Oesophagus  and  ce- 
phalic portion  of  intestines  very  minute;  its  posterior  end  is  large  and 
dark,  and  empties  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body.  On  one  side  of  the  head 
there  appears  to  be  a canal  filled  with  granules. 

The  male  is  to  be  distinguished  by  its  highly  curled  caudal  end.  The 
testicle,  beginning  near  the  caudal  end,  continues  anteriorly  as  a sinuous 
tube  for  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  thick  portion  of  the  worm; 
it  then  becomes  plaited  to  the  end  of  the  thick  part,  where  it  turns  and 
continues  posteriorly  as  an  enlarged  seminal  duct  for  about  half  the 
length  of  the  thickened  body,  where  it  is  constricted;  the  remainder  con- 
tinues to  the  cloaca  as  a slightly  enlarged  tube.  The  intromittent  appa- 
ratus consists  of  two  parts,  an  external  membranous  tube  bristling  with 
spines  and  an  internal  long,  slim  spiculum.  It  is  always  found  exserted, 
and  usually  has  one  coil  in  it.  The  tube  shows  at  its  end  that  the  ex- 
ternal covering  continues  around  the  end  into  the  tube  to  form  a lining 
membrane,  which  may  be  retracted  or  protruded.  There  is  considerable 
space  between  these  membranes  at  the  tip,  and  it  assumes  various  forms 
varying  between  a large  sphere,  (as  shown  in  the  figures)  and  an  elon- 
gate cylindrical  body.  The  chitinous  spiculum  is  terminated  by  an  acute 
point.  It  is  from  5 to  G mm.  long,  with  a width  of  0.025  mm.  The  tube 
is  about  three  or  four  times  as  wide.  The  spiny  points  are  turned  away 
from  the  end. 


84 


The  female  has  a thick  body,  and  only  slightly  curved.  Tail,  obtuse, 
ovary  begins  at  the  caudal  end,  continues  as  a plaited  canal  to  the  ce- 
phalic end  of  the  thick  part  of  the  body,  then  contracting  returns  to  the 
caudal  end  where  it  enlarges,  forms  a fold  and  becomes  the  uterus,  which 
empties  through  a sinuous  vagina  and  the  vulva  at  the  cephalic  end, 
where  the  body  jegins  to  enlarge.  Eggs  characterized  by  having  refran- 
gent  polar  bodies  at  each  end.  They  measure  0.077  mm.  in  length,  in- 
cluding these  bodies,  or  0.056  mm.  excluding  them  (Raillet).  They  are 
elliptical  and  dark  brown. 

The  eggs  are  passed  with  the  faeces  and  develop  on  damp  ground 
where  they  will  continue  to  live  for  sometime.  The  experimnts  with  tnis 
parasite  are  nearly  enough  complete  to  show  with  scarcely  any  doubt  that 
the  embryos  may  be  taken  directly  into  the  stomach  with  the  food  and 
that  no  intermediate  host  is  required. 

HAIR  LUNG  WORM. 

The  hair  lung  worm  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  varieties  of  worms  af- 
fecting the  lungs.  It  is  the  one  that  inhabits  the  smaller  air  cells  and  the 
disease  caused  by  it  is  a pneumonia,  as  distinguished  from  the  large  lung 
worm  affecting  tne  broncni  and  causing  a bronchitis  or  hacking  cough. 

Description. 

Male,  16  mm.;  female,  25  mm.;  width,  0.5  mm.;  female  1.7  mm.  Ca- 
pillary integument  of  worm  very  transparent,  the  cavity  of  the  body  ap- 
pearing as  a dark  line.  Head  not  winged;  four  papillae;  mouth  naked. 
Male,  bursa  pointed,,  compressed,  terminal,  costae  (apparently)  seven;  one 
posterior,  twice  notched  two  pair  lateral,  one  pair  anterior;  spicula  sym- 
metrical, spatulate,  curved;  0.15  mm.  long,  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts;  the  anterior  consisting  of  a cylindrical  chitinous  skeleton  with  a 
membranous  expansion,  the  posterior  of  a transversely  ribbed  skeleton, 
margined  by  a thin,  broad,  curved  membrane,  the  two  spicula  forming  a 
partially  closed  tube.  Female  oviparous,  with  two  uteri  and  ovaries.  The 
former  empty  into  a vagina  at  0.8  mm.  from  vulva.  Vulva  0.1  mm.  from 
anus.  Anus  0.8  from  tip  of  tail.  Tail  ends  in  a blunt  point.  Eggs  in 
uteri  0.1  mm.  long,  0.04  mm.  wide.  The  eggs  segment  after  being  laid. 
Embryo  provided  with  snarp  pointed  tail. 

This  lung  worm  is  so  small  that  it  escapes  the  attention  of  the  flock 
master,  and  farmer.  What  he  flnds  upon  post-mortem  is  solidified  lung 


85 


as  in  pneumonia.  The  disease  is  generally  referred  to  as  pneumonia,  and 
it  is  only  when  a competent  observer  is  employed  or  that  the  history  of  a 
number  of  cases  is  presented,  do  we  get  a diagnosis  of  the  parasitic  char- 
acter. I feel  quite  certain  that  the  disease  is  of  much  more  frequent  oc- 
currence in  this  state  than  is  at  all  suspected. 

The  complete  life  history  of  the  worm  remains  to  be  determined.  The 
young  escape  from  the  lungs  during  acts  of  coughing,  but  what  becomes 
of  them  from  that  time  until  they  are  again  found  in  the  lung  has  not 
been  determined.  It  is  surmised  that  they  undergo  such  changes  as  may 
be  necessary  on  the  pasture  or  in  water  and  after  a short  time  are  again 
taken  into  another  animal  while  grazing  or  with  the  drink.  Whether 
they  find  an  intemediate  host  in  some  insect  or  low  form  of  animal  life 
is  not  known.  Some  observers  reasoning  from  analogy  consider  that  such 
is  a part  of  the  life  cycle.  Other  observers  do  not  consider  such  to  be  a 
necessary  part  of  the  life  cycle.  The  disease  is  only  on  certain  pastures — 
pastures  that  have  become  infected  through  bringing  in  some  diseased 
sheep.  The  disease  spreads  throughout  a flock  to  greater  extent  on  very 
wet  years  than  in  years  of  drought.  A fairly  low  pasture  used  continu- 
ously throughout  the  season  is  also  bad. 

Whether  the  embryos  are  swallowed  and  migration  takes  place  from 
the  stomach  to  the  lungs,  or  whether  the  parasite  enters  by  ways  of  the 
trachea  is  also  an  undetermined  matter.  In  some  parasites  such  migration 
does  take  place,  but  these  parasites  have  never  been  found  between  the 
stomach  and  lungs.  It  would  seem,  too,  that  it  would  be  a difficult  mat- 
ter for  the  worms  to  become  disassociated  from  the  food  in  the  throat 
while  the  animal  was  in  the  act  of  swallowing  and  make  its  way  down 
the  trachea.  How  long  a period  of  time  is  necessary  for  the  parasite 
outside  the  body  and  how  long  inside  to  complete  a life  cycle  are  also 
points  that  have  not  been  determined.  Its  ill  effects  are  most  marked  up- 
on old  sheep  seemingly  indicating  that  it  requires  considerable  time. 

This  parasite  penetrates  the  air  passages  to  its  most  minute  branch- 
ing. It  causes  irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  wall  of  the  air  passage 
and  cells  and  a general  breaking  down  of  the  tissue.  As  in  all  inflamma- 
tory processes  nature  attempts  its  arrest  of  extension  by  walling  it  off. 
Each  worm  then  becomes  the  center  of  a slight  inflammatory  area  that  is 
walled  off  and  resembles  a tubercle.  The  contents  of  the  inside  are  brok- 
en down  and  galatinous,  outside  the  capsule  is  firm  and  fibrous.  These 
tubercles  are  about  a twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  first,  but  in  the 
later  stages  become  about  an  eight  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  parasite  is 
always  found  in  the  central  part  surrounded  by  greenish  or  yellowish  ma- 
terial, thin  and  pus-like,  or  may  be  dry  and  cheesy.  They  may  become 
calcareous  by  lime  deposition.  These  tubercles  undergo  quite  a series  of 
changes  from  that  of  a simple  blood  spot  under  the  pleura  to  that  of  a 


86 


hard  grey  nodule.  When  the  worm  matures  it  migrates  to  the  bronchia  to 
mate  and  lay  eggs,  and  these  hatch  and  the  young  being  very  active  set 
up  an  inflammation.  If  it  is  severe  we  have  the  pneumonia  that  sickens 
or  kills  the  sheep.  The  pneumonic  areas  are  small,  limited  to  the  point  of 
parasitic  involvement  and  resembles  the  ordinary  catarrhal  form.  With 
the  exudate  numerous  worms  and  eggs  are  thrown  off  in  the  act  of  cough- 
ing. The  fact  that  the  worms  are  present  in  every  stage  of  development 
and  tubercles  show  every  condition  from  the  hemorrhage  to  dry  caseous 
and  calcareous  infiltration  indicates  that  multiplication  may  take  place  in 
the  lungs  as  well  as  from  infection  from  without. 

The  diagnosis  can  not  be  made  until  the  disease  has  progressed  to  the 
point  of  producing  pneumonia  and  a post-mortem  is  made.  The  progno- 
cis  will  depend  upon  the  extent  of  parasitic  invasion.  No  medicinal 
treatment  can  be  given  that  will  secure  the  expulsion  of  the  worm. 

As  a preventive  precaution,  pasmres  where  the  disease  has  been 
known  to  occur  should  be  abandoned  for  at  least  a year.  It  is  desirable 
htat  the  sheep  be  pastured  upon  land  that  has  been  under  continuous  cul- 
tivation as  that  tends  to  destroy  any  parasites  that  may  be  present 


THE  THREAD  LUNG  WORM. 

Stongylus  filara,  Rud. 

This  is  the  larger  lung  worm  and  is  the  one  generally  referred  to  by 
most  observers  in  reporting  lung  worm  disease.  It  may  be  seen  on  open- 
ing the  trachea  and  bronchi  and  is  identical  with  that  found  in  calves. 
Curtice  regards  this  as  of  being  of  less  frequent  occurrence  than  the  hair 
worm  and  that  it  often  occurs  that  the  lesions  found  due  to  the  hair 
worm  are  erroneously  ascribed  to  this  one. 

Description. 

Male,  33  to  54  mm.;  female,  55-80  mm.  Worm  filiform,  white,  with  a 
dark  hair  line,  showing  throughout  its  length;  head  obtuse,  without 
noticable  papillae  or  wings;  mouth  circular,  naked;  unicellar  neck,  glands 
quite  large;  cuticle  longitudinally  striated.  Male,  bursa  shallow,  campa- 
nulate,  opening  laterally;  fiA^e  sets  of  costae;  the  dorsal  are  trifid,  the  later- 
al bifid  and  the  ventral  separated.  Spicula  arcuate  cylindrical;  3.35  mm. 
long  by  0.075  mm.  wide;  short,  very  thicK,  dark  brown;  chitinous  por- 
tion a curved  fenestrated  conical  tube;  fleshy  portion  a membrane,  which 
forms  a bulb-like  expansion  toward  its  free  end.  Female,  vulva  three  sev- 
enths of  her  length  from  the  head;  uteri  symmetrically  directed  anterior- 
ly and  posteriorally;  posterior  oviduct  becoming  continuous  with  the 
uterus  near  its  flexure  at  the  tail;  ovo-viviparous;  eggs  ellipsoid,  0.075  to 
0.120  mm.  long;  0.045  to  0.082  mm.  wide.  Plmbryo  0.25  to  3 mm. 


87 


The  complete  life  cycle  of  this  worm  is  not 
fully  determined.  The  eggs,  or  rather  the  em- 
bryos, are  expelled  by  the  act  of  coughing  and 
distributed  upon  the  pasture,  the  feed,  water 
trough  and  whatever  may  be  near.  How  much 
time  is  necessary  to  be  spent  outside  the  body 
and  whether  they  must  pass  any  part  of  their 
existence  in  some  lower  animal  is  not  known. 
Professor  Leucart  has  kept  the  young  of  this 
species  alive  for  several  weeks  on  damp  earth 
and  observed  them  to  molt  and  then  die.  They 
have  been  kept  alive  for  several  months  in 
water.  This  latter  statement  may  account  for 
the  persistence  of  the  infection  In  some  cases. 
How  the  parasite  finds  its  way  into  the  lungs, 
too,  after  being  taken  into  the  mouth  with  the 
food  or  water  is  not  clearly  demonstrated.  The 
worm  develops  quite  rapidly  in  me  bronchi  and 
is  found  to  effect  principally  lambs  and  young 
sheep,  thus  differing  from  the  hair  lung  worm. 
The  symptoms  of  lung  worm  are  those  due  to 
the  irritation  of  the  bronchial  tubes.  The 
bronchitis  differs  in  no  respect  from  a bron- 
chitis associated  with  a cold.  There  are  ac- 
cumulations of  mucous,  sometimes  of  a bloody 
character,  sometimes  a cough  and  expulsion  of 
this  mucous.  In  some  cases  the  cough  is  the  prom- 
inent symptoms  and  in  that  way  gets  the  name 
of  “hoose.”  With  it  may  be  difficulty  in  berath- 
ing.  The  general  health  is  impaired.  The  ap- 
petite may  remain  good,  but  what  is  eaten  does 
not  seem  to  do  much  good.  The  wool  be- 
comes dry  and  harsh,  without  yolk,  slips  easily 
the  skin  is  thin  and  tender  giving  the  name 
of  paper  skin.  There  is  paleness  of  the  mu- 
cous membranes  of  the  eyes  and  lips.  The  ani- 
mals are  thin  and  become  exhausted  easily 
either  from  exercise  or  exposure.  The  course 
extends  over  a period  of  three  or  four  months. 

The  disease  is  most  noticeable  in  summer, 
fall  and  early  winter,  begins  to  wane  during 
the  middle  of  winter  and  practically  disap- 


88 


pears  in  the  spring.  A damp  season  favors  the  development  of  the  worms. 
When  the  symptoms  develop  early  there  is  little  chance  for  recovery,  but 
when  they  develop  late,  the  chances  of  recovery  are  good.  When  recovery 
takes  place  the  lamb  will  always  remain  dwarfed  and  there  will  be  loss  of 
flesh  and  fleece. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  hair  worm,  where  the  disease  develops  on  a 
pasture,  the  same  should  be  abandoned  for  a year  and  in  its  stead  fields 
used  that  have  been  in  crops.  The  use  of  surface  water  should  be  avoided. 

Medicinal  treatment  promises  more  in  the  case  of  this  parasite  than 
In  that  of  the  hair  lung  worm.  These  parasites  lying  free  in  the  bron- 
chial tube  may  be  reached  to  a limited  extent.  Internal  medicants  that 
may  be  eliminated  through  the  lungs,  inhalation  and  intra-tracheal  medi- 
cation have  all  been  recommeded.  After  reviewing  a considerable  litera- 
ture upon  the  subject,  it  appears  that  few  remedies  are  better  than  tur- 
pentine. This  may  be  given  both  internally  and  by  inhalation.  If  given 
internally,  about  a dram  may  be  administered  with  a little  milk  or  oil  to 
make  an  emulsion.  If  given  as  an  inhalation,  a couple  of  ounces  may  be 
placed  on  the  surface  of  a bucket,  or  kettle  of  hot  water  and  allowed  to 
diffuse  in  a small,  close  stable.  Or  equally  as  good,  a quantity  poured  on 
some  hot  bricks.  Either  method  will  require  repetition.  Good  food  and 
tonic  will  also  be  necessary  to  maintain  the  general  body  condition. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

The  cuts  of  parasites  and  the  scientific  descriptions  where  not 
otherwise  credited,  are  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry report  upon  “Parasitic  Diseases  of  Sheep”  by  Cooper  Curtice; 
Washington,  1890. 

The  data  relative  to  the  frequency  of  occurrence  of  the  different  af- 
fections in  this  state  has  been  made  possible  through  the  office  of  State 
Veternarian. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  95.  Vol.*  XII. 
March,  1903. 


Unproductive  Black  Soils. 


a 


Pnbllslied  l)y  llie  siallon: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA, 
U.  S.  A, 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


William  V.  Stuart,  President, 
William  A.  Banks, 

Sylvester  Johnson, 

David  E.  Beem, 

Job  H.  VanNatta, 

James  M.  Barrett,  - 
Charles  Domning, 

Charles  B.  Stemen, 

Charles  Major, 


LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 
Irvington,  Marion  Co. 
Spencer,  Owen  Co. 
LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 
Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 
Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 
- Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 


Edavard  a.  Ellsavorth,  Secretary. 
Jaaies  M.  Foavler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTiiROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 
Henry  A.  Huston,  A.  M.,  A.  C., 
William  C.  Latta,  M.  S., 

Jaaies  Troop,  M.  S., 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc., 

Ara'ill  AV.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  I)., 
Hubert  E.  VanXoraian,  B.  S., 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S., 

Alfred  T.  AViancko, 


President  of  the  UniA^ersity. 
Director  and  Chemist. 
Agriculturist. 
Horticulturist. 
Botanist. 
Veterinarian. 
- Dairyman. 
Live  Stock. 
Associate  Agriculturist. 


THE.  IMPROVEMENT  OF  UNPRODUCTIVE  BLACK  SOILS. 

By  H.  a.  Huston. 


OCCURENCE. 

In  nearly  every  coLinty  in  central  and  northern  Indiana  may  be 
foLind  a kind  of  black  soil,  often  known  as  ‘‘bogus  land.’’  It  is  also 
sometimes  called  “alkali,”  but  not  correctly,  for  the  land  has  none 
of  the  real  characteristics  of  alkali  soil. 

The  size  of  the  areas  of  unproductive  black  lands  varies  from  a 
few  square  rods  to  a hundred  or  more  acres.  Many  of  the  places 
where  it  is  found  were  formerly  marshes  or  the  bottoms  of  old  ponds. 
Such  land  is  found  at  all  elevations  above  the  level  of  the  water 
courses  from  bottom  lands  beside  the  streams  to  the  summit  of  the 
ridges  or  divides  between  the  water  courses. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LAND. 

The  unproductive  soil  itself  consists  of  partially  decomposed 
organic  matter  mixed  with  more  or  less  sand  and  clay.  In  the  large 
areas  the  organic  matter  makes  up  the  greater  part  of  the  material 
and  the  soil  has  the  general  character  of  muck  lands.  In  some  of  the 
smaller  areas  there  is  more  mineral  matter  present.  Often  these 
small  areas  are  low  places  in  fields  of  clay  or  loam  and  differ  from 
the  remainder  of  the  field  only  in  having  more  black  matter  in  the 
soil,  and  being  at  a lower  level.  On  digging  down  in  these  small 
areas  it  is  generally  found  that  the  distance  to  the  hard  pan,  clay  or 
gravel,  is  much  greater  in  the  “bogus”  places  than  in  the  good  soil 
near  the  border  of  the  bogus  place,  indicating  that  at  one  time  the 
“bogus”  place  was  filled  with  water  to  a considerable  depth  and 
gradually  became  filled  up  with  the  washings  from  the  higher  land 
surrounding  it  and  with  the  products  of  the  decay  of  the  wafer 
plants  growing  in  it. 

In  the  larger  areas  the  stratification  and  general  characteristics 
of  muck  beds  are  found,  the  muck  being  from  a few  inches  to  fifteen 
feet  in  depth. 

I have  collected  numerous  sani])les  of  such  soil  and  have  re- 
ceived many  samples  from  different  ])arts  of  the  State.  In  no  case 
has  a sample  shown  any  acid  reaction  nor  have  I found  metallic 
sulphides  or  ferrous  iron  compounds  ])resent.  The  waters  of  such 
soils  have  always  given  the  slightly  alkaline  reaction  common  to  the 
waters  of  this  section. 


4 


As  none  of  the  causes  usually  assigned  as  the  reason  of 
ductiveness  in  soil  were  present,  it  was  determined  to 
class  of  land  more  fully.  A chemical  examination  for  the  three 
plant  food  compounds  most  frequently  deficient  in  agricultural  soils 
showed  that  from  a chemical  standpoint  the  soil  was 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  contained  much  more  phosphoric  acid  than  the 

fertile  loams  of  the  State.  , ^ i r a 

The  total  potash  is  only  about  one-fifteenth  of  the  potash  found 

in  average  soils  of  the  State.  Yet  the  fact  that  ^mplete  ana  yses 
of  both  soil  and  subsoil  of  the  productive  and  unproductive  land  from 
the  same  field  showed  practically  the  same  potash 
fact  the  same  content  of  all  ingredients,  led  one  to  believe  that,  while 
potash  might  be  exceedingly  low  in  these  soils,  there  was  probab  y 
some  addhional  difficulty  to  be  overcome.  The  unproductive  soil 
seemed  to  be  quite  low  in  sulfur  and  experiments  bearing  on  the 
use  of  sulphates  on  such  soils  are  now  in  progress.  ■ 

The  amount  of  humus^  in  all  the  soils  was  so  high  as  to  lea 
to  the  belief  that  there  was  an  abundance  of  available  nitrogen. 

■ The  air  dry  sample  of  soil  and  sub-soil  contained; 

Soil.  Sub-soil. 

Water  16.32  16.23 

Ash  42.87 

Nit-.ogen  3-22  ■ 2.64 

Phosphoric  Acid,  Pj  O5.  . . 0.46 

Potash,  K,  0 0.105  0.108 

Attention  was  next  directed  to  the  question  of  drainage.  For 
this  purpose  unproductive  lands  in  White,  Carroll,  Tippecanoe  an 
Clinton  Lunties  were  examined.  With  the  exception  of  the  tract  in 
White  County,  which  was  drained  by  a system  of  deep,  open  ditc  , 
these  lands  “had  been  thoroughly  tiled  and  the  tile  had  been  laid  by 
an  expert  ” The  examination  showed  that  the  tile  had  been  laid 
through  these  lands  at  the  usual  depth  and  at  -tervah  o 150  feet 
between  the  laterals.  There  was  no  obstruction  of  the  tile  found 
The  White  county  tract  belonging  to  Mr.  Samuel  Virden,  and 
tract  belonging  to  Mr.  John  McCoy  were  selected  for  further  inves- 
t gati^  The  Virden  farm  is  a portion  of  the  prairie  through 
which  Honey  Creek  runs.  The  creek  has  been  straightened  and 
Sdged  out  to  a siifficent  depth  to  afford  a large  outlet  drainage 
water  On  this  farm  the  “bogus”  soil  occurs  in  small  areas  not  ex 
ceeding  an  acre  in  extent.  The  field  on  the  McCoy  farm  consists  of 

^terminecl  by  Huston  modification  of  Grnnde.au  method^Bui.  «^Vok  IV. 
Indiana  Ex.  Sta.;  Chem.  Div.  Dep’t  of  Agri.,  Bui.  38,  p.  84;  W.iey,  Agr.  Chem. 
Anal.,  p.  326. 


5 


about  twenty  acres  lying  between  the  bottom  land  of  Wea  Creek 
and  the  higher  lands  to  the  east.  One  half  of  this  field  has  pro- 
duced about  70  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  continuously  for  nineteen 
years,  while  the  unproductive  portion  has  produced  practically  noth- 
ing. In  wet  years,  perhaps,  two  or  three  bushels  per  acre  might  be 
obtained.  The  tile  is  laid  lYi  to  4 feet  deep  and  laterals  are  150  feet 
apart.  (Laterals  are  4 inch  tile).  The  sketch,  fig.  i,  will  show  the 
arrangement  of  the  tile  and  the  boundaries'  of  the  field. 


Fig.  I. 


The  soil  is  of  muck  from  to  5 feet  deep.  The  muck  is  under- 
laid by  a mixture  of  shell  marl  and  muck.  Below,  this  is  a layer  of 
■fine  white  sand  which  rests  on  a very  thin  layer  of  clay.  Under  this 
clay  is  a layer  of  gravel  carrying  a strong  flow  of  water.  The 
shaded  area  in  fig.  'i  shows  the  location  of  the  bogus  land.  Four 
lines  of  4-inch  tile,  laid  3^2  feet  deep,  extend  through  the  unpro- 
ductive land.  At  the  point  4,  fig.  i,  a tile  well  is  introduced  in 
which  the  flow  from  the  upper  half  o.f  the  main  tile  and  that  from 
two  of  the  laterals  may  be  observed.  The  lateral  to  the  south  of  the 
main  tile  at  about  the  point  5 runs  through  the  water  bearing  grav- 


6 


el  for  a short  distance.  The  flow  of  water,  from  this  tile  is  always 
greater  than  that  from  the  main  tile  and  the  north  lateral  combined. 
An  examination  of  the  main  tile  and  of  the  north  laterals  showed 
that  these  tile  were  not  obstructed.  Openings  were  made  and  the 
north  laterals  were  laid  bare  for  a short  distance. 

After  a short  time  the  water  flowed  into  the  openings  and  stood 
at  a distance  of  30  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
stood  6 inches  deep  over  the  hare  tile,  showing  that  v/here  the  tile  was 
laid  in  the  raw  muck  the  water  could  not  enter  th<=‘  tile  as  the  pores 
and  joints  of  the  tile  were  stopped  up  by  the  raw  muck.  Fifteen 
openings  were  made  in  the  unproductive  areas  reaching  to  the  water 
bearing  gravel.  The  gravel  was  found  at  different  depths  from  5 to 
8^  feet.  But  in  every  case  as  soon  as  the  gravel  layer  was  reached 
the  water  at  once  rose  in  the  hole  until  it  stood  at  2g  to  30  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Some  of  these  holes  were  left  open  during  the  summer  and  ex- 
aminations made  from  time  to  time  showed  that  the  water  level 
remained  the  same.  It  is  evident  then  that  this  unproductive  area 
has  under  it  a sheet  of  water  fed  from  a source  high  enough  to  main- 
tain this  constant  water  level.  An  opening  was  also  made  at  the 
point  I in  the  productive  part  of  the  field.  The  water  bearing  gravel 
was  found  at  60  inches,  and  as  soon  as  the  gravel  was  reached  the 
water  rose  in  the  hole  to  42  inches  below  the  surface  and  remained 
at  this  level  during  the  season.  It  is  evident  then  that  the  south 
lateral  of  the  tile  system  which  passes  through  gravel  for  a short  dis- 
tance at  a depth  of  42  inches  has  reduced  the  water  level  of  that  part 
of  the  field  to  the  same  depth  as  that  at  which  the  tile  is  placed. 

The  thickness  of  the  various  layers  differ  somewhat  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  field,  but  the  following  sections  are  typical  ones. 
The  holes  were  dug  Aug.  22,  1892,  and  temperature  reading  taken 
by  inserting  a thermometer  into  the  sides  as  the  work  progressed. 

In  the  fertile  soil  a small  local  vein  of  water  probably  due  to 
the  space  occupied  by  a decayed  root,  was  found  and  the  variation  in 
the  temperature  at  42  inches  was  probably  due  to  water  from  a 
higher  level  falling  in  this  as  the  depth  of  the  hole  increased. 

At  the  time  of  taking  the  temperature  the  ground  had  a corn 
crop  on  it.  Possibly  the  lower  temperatures  of  the  productive  land 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ground  was  more  heavily  shaded  by  the 
crop. 

All  the  observations  on  this  soil  lead  to  the  conclusions  that 
the  real  difficulty  was  the  high  permanent  zvater  level.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  corn  roots  in  the  fields  in  Tippecanoe,  Carroll,  \\diite  and 


7 


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8 


Clinton  counties  showed  that  when  the  roots  reached  the  permanent 
water  line  the  tip  of  the  roots  turned  black  and  that  the  tissue  was 
destroyed.  With  this  destruction  of  the  tip  of  the  root  the  corn 
plant  turns  yellow  and  from  this  time  forward  the  plant  is  in  an  un- 
healthy condition.  Many  of  the  stalks  bear  no  ears  and  where  ears 
form  there  are  very  few  that  are  marketable.  During  Septembei 
many  of  the  stalks  fall  down  owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  stalk  be^ 
tween  the  ear  and  the  ground.  The  stalks  are  almost  always  hol- 
low and  nearly  free  from  pith. 

The  white  material  that  is  often  found  on  the  surface  of  this 
kind  of  land  and  is  supposed  to  be  “white  alkali”  has,  in  all  the 
cases  examined,  been  found  to  consist  of  a low  form  of  fungus, 
the  growth  of  which  is  favored  by  the  moisture  and  richness  of 
these  soils. 

On  some  of  these  lands  farmers  report  that  when  the  surface  is 
dry  there  is  much  annoyance  caused  to  men  and  animals  by  the  in- 
tense itching  which  arises  after  working  a short  time  on  the  land. 
In  the  cases  I have  examined,  this  trouble  seems  to  be  due  to  min- 
ute sharp  pointed  particles  of  silica  wliich  represent  the  skeletons 
of  low  forms  of  life  present  in  the  water  when  the  formation  of  the 
muck  bed  was  in  progress.  There  seems  to  be  no  remedy  for  this 
trouble  except  the  better  protection  of  the  legs  of  men  and  animals 
that  work  on  the  land. 

WHY  ARE  THESE  LANDS  UNPRODUCTIVE? 

After  an  experience  of  eleven  years  in  making  observations  and 
experiments  on  lands  similar  to  those  described  above,  I am  con- 
vinced that  in  every  case  that  I have  examined,  the  difficulty  arises 
from  bad  drainage  and  a failure  to  reduce  the  water  level  to  the 
proper  point.  I believe  that  for  corn  culture  (and  these  lands  are  of 
high  value  as  corn  lands  and  often  not  desirable  for  other  crops) 
the  permanent  water  level  should  be  reduced  to  42  inches.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  with  a permanent  water  level  of  30  inches,  very  little  corn 
can  be  raised,  while  with  a permanent  level  of  42  inches  first-class 
crops  have  been  grown  continuously  for  30  years. 

METHODS  OF  IMPROVEMENT. 

While  there  is  no  question  that  proper  drainage  is  the  best 
method  for  permanent  improvement  of  these  lands,  the  fact  that  the 
lowering  of  the  permanent  water  level  by  the  ordinary  means  calls  for 
an  outlay  that  the  owners  are  not  always  willing  or  able  to  make 
at  once,  justifies  one  in  trying  to  find  some  means  for  the  temporarv 
improvement  of  these  lands. 


9 


For  this  purpose  field  experiments  were  undertaken  in  the 
spring  of  1892,  on  the  farms  of  Air.  S.  T.  Virden,  at  Guernsey,  White 
county,  and  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  John  McCoy,  eight  miles  south  of 
LaFayette  in  Tippecanoe  county. 

The  experimental  work  included  sub-soiling  to  a depth  of  18 
inches,  and  the  treatment  of  the  soil  with  lime,  straw  and  kainit. 
Kainit  is  one  of  the  German  potash  minerals,  consisting  mainly  of  the 
sulphates  and  chlorides  of  potash  and  magnesia  and  common  salt. 
The  usual  cost  is  about  $15  per  ton,  plus  the  freight  from  point  of 
purchase. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  McCOY  FARM. 

A strip  of  ground  in  the  unproductive  portion  of  the  field  was 
selected  and  eleven  plats  staked  off,  each  wide  enough  for  four  corn 
rows,  14  feet  8 inches,  and  long  enough,  149  feet,  to  make  the  area 
of  each  plat  equal  to  1-20  acre.  The  arrangement  of  the  plats  is 
shown  in  the  following  diagram: 


Ordi-  1 
nary  1 
plow-  \ 
ing.  y 

1.  Straw.  1 

2.  Nothing. 

3.  100  lbs.  kainit. 

4.  100  lbs.  kainit,  500  lbs.  lime. 

5.  500  lbs.  lime 

( 

Sub  ( 
soiled  ] 

6.  Straw. 

7.  Nothing. 

8.  100  lbs.  kainit. 

9.  100  lbs.  kainit,  500  lbs.  lime. 

10.  500  lbs  lime. 

11.  Nothing. 

The  straw  applied  was  rather  short  wheat  straw  and  a layer 
about  three  inches  thick  was  plowed  under.  The  lime  was  removed 
from  the  barrels  sometime  before  plowing  and  was  allowed  to  air 
slack.  All  the  material  was  plowed  under  on  ATay  23  after  long 
continued  rain.  Much  care  was  exercised  to  secure  an  even  distri- 
bution of  the  material.  Owing  to  unfavoral)le  weather  the  corn  was 
not  planted  until  the  second  week  in  June.  The  corn  on  the  plats 
to  which  kainit  or  straw  was  applied  made  a continuous  growth. 


10 


and  after  the  middle  of  July  these  plats  could  readily  be  distin- 
guished from  a distance  by  a darker  color.  The  treated  plats  did 
not  ripen  as  early  as  the  others  and  the  fodder  was  slightly  damaged 
by  frost  on  Sept.  27,  although  no  injury  was  done  to  the  ears.  The 
corn  was  cut  on  Oct.  3rd,  and  husked  on  Oct.  19. 

The  result  of  the  experiment  calculated  to  the  acre  basis,  ap- 
pear in  table  i. 


TABLE  I. 


Plat 

Yield  per  acre. 

No. 

Plowing. 

Treatment. 

So’nd  cornjpoor  corn, 
bushels.  bushels. 

Fodder 

tons. 

1 

Ordinary 

Straw 

48.4 

28.6 

55.8 

5.1 

11.0 

4.4 

2.30 

1.39 

2.43 

2 

None 

3 

Kainit 

Kainit 

4 

1 

Lime 

52.4 

6.8 

2.48 

5 

Lime 

25.1 
48.6 

16.1 
60.4 

52.0 

11.6 

4.5 

12.0 

2.3 

2.2 

1.48 

1.92 

1.04 

2.43 

2.21 

6 

Sub-soiled 

Straw 

7 

( 4 

None 

8 

44 

Kainit 

Kainit 

9 

1 

Lime 

10 

44 

Lime 

15.04 

10.5 

1.04 

11 

44 

None ! . . . 

4.0 

12.6 

0.96 

In  this  preliminary  test  no  spaces  were  left  between  the  plats 
as  it  was  desired  to  leave  a strip  of  unproductive  land  beyond  plat 
1 1 for  further  investigation.  When  the  crop  matured  it  was  evident 
that  plats  2 and  7 had  derived  much  benefit  from  the  applications 
made  to  the  plats  on  each  side  of  them.  It  was  found  that  the  roots 
of  the  corn  on  plats  2 and  7 extended  over  into  the  plats  on  either 
side  of  them.  The  results  from  all  the  plats  are  given,  but  plat  ii 
is  the  only  one  that  bore  any  resemblance  to  the  untreated  portion 
of  the  field,  and  in  making  comparisons,  moreover,  the  difference  be- 
tween plat  II  and  plat  2,  24.6  bushels,  ought  to  be  credited  to  the 
treatment  on  plat  i and  plat  3 and  the  difference  between  plat  ii 
and  plat  7,  12. i bushels  ought  to  be  credited  to  plats  6 and  8,  in 
order  to  get  a correct  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  materials  applied.  If 
this  be  done  it  will  bring  the  yields  of  sound  corn  on  plats  i,  3,  6 and 
8 fully  up  to  the  average  of  the  productive  part  of  the  field.  Plat  7 
derived  less  benefit  from  the  adjoining  plats  probably  on  account  of 
the  subsoiling  which  permitted  the  roots  to  go  downward  rather 
than  laterally. 


1 1 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  95.  Plate  I. 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp,  Station.  Bulletin  95.  Plate  II. 


12 


I 

I 


PLAT  n PLAT  to  PLAT  9 ^ 

rsoTHiHG  MliMH  * lime 


13 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  95.  Plate  111. 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  95.  Plate  IV. 


14 


Hud  corn.  Sound  corn.  I^iid  corn.  Sound  corn. 


15 


The  appearance  of  the  ends  of  plats  6 to  ii  on  October  3d  are 
given  in  plates  I and  II,  and  the  appearance  of  a part  of  the  side  of 
plat  II  is  shown  in  plate  III.  The  crop  from  these  plats  showing 
the  good  and  bad  ears  is  shown  in  plate  IV. 

As  these  plates  do  not  show  the  quality  of  the  bad  corn  very 
clearly  the  appearance  of  typical  ears  of  each  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 


A.  From  treated  plats. 


FIG.  3. 


B From  untreated  plat.s. 


In  this  experiment  it  appears  that  the  best  yield  was  obtained 
from  the  use  of  kainit,  the  next  best  from  the  use  of  kainit  and  lime, 
and  the  next  best  from  the  use  of  straw.  But  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
on  both  plats  4 and  9 where  kainit  and  lime  were  used  that  the  yield' 
is  less  than  where  kainit  alone  was  used.  The  lime  appears  to  give  a 
slight  increase  on  plats  5 and  10,  but  in  my  judgment  this  increase 
is  derived  from  the  materials  applied  to  the  adjoining4)lats.  The  lime 
does  not  appear  to  mix  readily  with  the  soil  and  four  years  after 
the  lime  was  applied,  the  plats  receiving  lime  could  readily  be  located 
by  the  lime  on  the  surface, 

AFTER  EFFECTS  OF  THE  TREATMENT. 

Since  1892,  no  further  materials  have  been  applied  to  the  plats, 
but  observations  were  continued  on  them.  The  tileage  operations 
and  the  tendency  of  the  corn  roots  to  extend  laterally  has  nearly  ob- 
literated plats  2,  5 and  7,  and  they  can  only  be  located  by  observing 
that  in  one  or  two  rows  there  are  more  bad  ears  and  a few  hollow 
stalks  that  have  broken  down ; plats  10  and  1 1 are  still  well  defined. 

It  was  not  considered  desirable  to  make  weighings  of  the  crop 
on  account  of  this.  At. this  time,  the  whole  area  embraced  in  plats 
I to  9 presents  practically  the  some  appearance  as  the  productive 
portion  of  the  field  and  is  sharply  defined  against  the  unproductive 
portion  surrounding  it.  The  crop  on  these  plats  during  the  years 
1893  to  1902,  has  in  the  judgment  of  the  owner  and  of  myself  been 
better  than  in  1892. 

COMMERCIAL  BEARINGS  OF  THE  WORK. 

All  who  have  watched  the  progress  of  the  experiments  have 
agreed  that  the  yields  of  the  past  ten  seasons  on  the  treated  plats 
have  exceeded  the  yields  of  the  first  season.  It,  therefore,  seems 
that  one  will  be  justified  in  calculating  the  returns  on  the  yields  of 
1892.  On  this  basis  the  application  of  a three-inch  layer  of  straw 
in  1892  has  given  a net  increase  of  no  less  than  44  bushels  of  sound 
corn  per  acre  for  eleven  years,  or  a total  of  484  bushels.  I think  that 
any  farmer  will  admit  that  this  is  ample  return  for  the  expense  of 
spreading  and  turning  under  a three-inch  layer  of  straw. 

The  net  returns  from  the  use  of  one  ton  of  kainit  per  acre  are 
not  less  than  54  bushel  per  acre  for  eleven  years,  or  a total  of  594 
bushels.  A ton  of  kainit  can  be  ])urchased  and  distributed  on  any 
field  in  Indiana  for  not  more  than  $20.  During  these  years  the  av- 
erage selling  price  of  corn  at  this  point  is  estimated  at  35  cents,  giv- 
ing a return  of  $207.90  for  the  investment  of  $20. 

In  the  case  of  small  areas  of  unproductive  soil  in  fields,  it  is  the 
custom  of  farmers  to  plow  and  plant  this  unproductive  area  the 


i; 

same  as  the  productive  part  of  the  field.  The  treatment  of  these 
small  areas  with  straw  or  kainit  will  render  the  labor  applied  U) 
these  places  effective.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  in- 
fluence of  the  treatment  will  be  effective  for  some  years  to  come  so 
that  the  statement  above  does  not  include  the  total  return,  but  only 
what  has  been  obtained  from  eleven  crops. 

EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  VIRDEN  FARM. 

The  unproductive  soil  on  this  farm  is  in  small  areas,  not  often 
over  one  acre  in  extent. 

The  top  soil  contains  more  mineral  matter  than  that  on  the 
McCoy  farm.  The  sub-soil  is  clay,  resting  on  3^ellow  sand,  which 
in  turn  is  underlaid  by  water-bearing  gravel.  An  examination 
showed  that  the  water  level  was  about  30  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  unproductive  soil.  The  unproductive  soil  is  in  low  places 
and  an  examination  showed  that  a sheet  of  water  underlaid  the 
whole  field.  The  productive  soil  was  high  enough  above  the  un- 
productive area  to  make  the  permanent  water  level  from  40  to  60 
inclx'^s  below  the  surface  of  the  productive  soil.  In  favorable  seas- 
ons the  land  produces  from  40  to  60  bushels  of  corn  per  acre.  On 
the  unproductive  areas  01  this  farm,  clover  an'd  grasses  do  fairly 
well,  but  corn  is  practically  a failure.  In  the  spring  of  1892  a piece 
of  unproductive  land  on  this  farm  was  selected  in  a field  that  was 
to  be  planted  in  corn.  A portion  of  this  area  had  received  a dressing 
of  manure  during  the  winter.  The  manured  area  was  included  in 
plats  2,  3 and  4,  and  on  this  account  these  three  plats  received  a 
dressing  of  manure  over  the  remainder  of  the  unmanured  portions 
of  them.  The  diagram  following  shows  the  plan  of  the  ]:>lats  and 
the  treatment  of  each. 


1.  i Subsoiled. 


i8 


Owing  to  continued  rains  the  land  was  not  plowed  until  June 
22,  the  materials  having  been  distributed  the  day  before.  The  corn 
was  planted  June  22.  The  ground  was  so  wet  that  the  sub-soil 
plow  did  not  work  to  advantage. 

The  late  planting  and  wet  season  prevented  the  ripening  of  the 
corn,  and  both  fodder  and  ears  were  seriously  injured  by  frost.  For 
this  reason  the  corn  was  not  sorted.  An  examination  of  the  field 
at  the  end  of  September  showed  that  there  was  a marked  difference 
in  favor  of  the  treated  plats  and  the  plats  presented  practically  the 
same  appearance  as  those  similarly  treated  on  the  McCoy  farm. 

The  total  weight  of  ears  on  the  plats  is  given  in  table  2.  Sim- 
ilar weights  from  the  McCoy  farm  being  given  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison. 


TABLE  2.— TOTAL  WEIGHT  OF  EARS  HARVESTED. 


Treatment 

McCoy  Farm.  i 

Virden  Farm. 

Sub-soiled 

87.5  lbs. 

1 

25  lbs. 

Manure 

38  “ 

Ivinie 

102.5  “ 

27  “ 

Ivime  and  kainit 

163.5  “ 

40  “ 

Nothing' 

111. 

i 24  “ 

Kainit 

167. 

42  “ 

Straw 

150.5  “ 

i 32  “ 

In  the  results  from  the  McCoy  farm  I have  used  for  the  sub- 
soil and  no  treatment  plats,  the  plats  that  occupied  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible the  same  relative  positions  as  those  in  the  work  on  the  Virden 
farm.  The  real  results  of  the  treatment  do  not  appear  from  such  a 
comparison,  as  the  most  marked  effect  of  the  treatment  with  straw 
and  with  kainit  is  not  so  much  to  increase  the  total  number  of  ears  as 
to  increase  the  number  of  marketable  ears  and  to  reduce  the  number 
of  bad  ears.  From  a personal  examination  of  the  Virden  field  at  the 
end  of  September  I was  convinced  that  the  results  would  have  been 
relatively  as  good  as  those  on  the  McCoy  farm,  if  the  crop  had  been 
permitted  to  mature. 

In  regard  to  the  after  effects  of  the  treatment,  Mr.  Virden 
writes  under  date  of  Oct.  29,  1895. 

“Our  plats  had  a crop  of  oats  in  1893-94,  and  corn  in  ’95.  Both 
oat  crops  grew  very  rank  and  lodged  some.  The  yield  for  the  field 
( 10  acres),  including  plats,  was  about  41  bushels  in  ’93,  and  44  bush- 
els in  ’94.  The  plats  were  in  the  best  parts  of  the  field,  and  their 
yield  would  exceed  the  average.  The  stubble  was  thick  and  burned 
well  each  year.  We  burned  just  before  sowing  in  ’94,  and  before 
plowing  for  corn  this  year. 


19 


“The  corn  crop  this  year  is  an  average  one.  We  have  it  cut 
but  not  husked.  I should  estimate  33  to  35  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  drouth  badly  affected  the  crop. 

“As  to  noticing  difference  between  the  plats,  it  was  very  difficult 
to  distinguish.  It  seemed  that  the  manure  and  kainit  plats  were 
slightly  better,  but  it  would  have  taken  close  weighing  to  determine. 
The  lime  never  seemed  much  good.  The  blank  plats  seem  to  be 
about  as  good  as  the  remainder.’' 

The  death  of  Mr.  Virden  prevented  further  observations  on  this 
land. 

The  results  of  the  field  work  show  that  there  are  satisfactory 
methods  of  temporary  improvement — methods  that  are  easily  applied 
and  that  are  exceedingly  profitable  from  a commercial  standpoint. 

While  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  effects  of  this  tempo- 
rary improvement  may  extend  over  a number  of  seasons,  it  is  desir- 
able to  look  for  a means  of 

PERMANENT  IMPROVEMENT. 

The  methods  of  temporary  improvement  have  been  based  on 
counteracting  the  effects  of  the  bad  condition  of  the  land.  The  meth- 
ods of  permanent  improvement  must  remove  the  cause  of  this  bad 
condition. 

The  unproductiveness  of  the  soil  in  question  is  caused  by  bad 
water  conditions,  the  permanent  water  level  being  too  near  the  suf- 
face,  and  to  some  extent  by  a lack  of  available  potash. 

In  raw  muck  lands  the  water  will  not  readily  enter  a tile,  and 
the  water  moves  through  such  soil  with  great  difficulty.  On  the 
unproductive  lands  the  water  level  is  maintained  by  some  source  of 
water  in  the  surrounding  higher  ground  and  reaches  the  muck  soil 
through  a water  bearing  sand  or  gravel  layer  belo-sv  the  muck.  The 
water  moves  very  readily  through  the  gravel,  and  if  we  can  devise 
some  plan  of  drainage  by  which  a portion  of  the  tile  will  pass 
through  this  gravel  layer  a permanent  water  level  will  be  reduced 
to  the  level  of  the  tile.  Where  ever  this  can  be  done  at  reasonable 
expense  it  is  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
problem. 

Before  the  drainage  of  such  lands  is  undertaken,  it  would  pay 
the  owner  a thousandfold  to  make  a preliminary  drainage  survey  by 
digging  holes  in  the  muck  bed  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  lay- 
ers below  the  surface  and  particularly  to  learn  the  depth  of  the 
water-bearing  sand  or  gravel  that  is  almost  invariably  found  below 
such  lands.  These  holes  should  be  left  open  for  a few  days  to  allow 
the  water  to  take  its  permanent  level.  After  a few  such  holes  have 


20 


been  dug  the  labor  may  be  much  lessened  by  boring  holes  with 
a two  inch  augur,  welded  to  a piece  of  ^ inch  gas  pipe,  with  a 7‘ 
screwed  on  the  top  to  hold  the  cross  handle.  The  augur  and  pipe 
used  by  me  is  about  7 feet  long,  and  two  extra  sections  of  pipe  five 
feet  long,  with  couplings  provided  for  deeper  borings,  should  they 
be  found  necessary,  \\dth  such  a tool  there  is  no  difficulty  in  tell- 
ing when  the  gravel  layer  is  reached  and  finding  out  its  depth. 
\\'hen  the  augur  is  drawn  the  softer  or  wet  layers  usually  close  the 
opening  behind  the  augur.  If  it  is  desired  to  work  in  a clear  and 
dry  hole  a casing  of  2^2  inch  pipe,  made  in  sections  of  the  same 
lengths  as  the  augur  sections  is  driven  down  and  the  boring  made 
inside  of  this  pipe.  By  this  means'  the  water  is  kept  out  and  the 
portions  of  each  layer  brought  up  by  the  augur  are  readily  exam- 
ined. The  casing  is  easily  pulled  up  when  the  boring  is  finished. 
A cap  should  be  screwed  on  the  top  of  the  casing  when  it  is  driven 
down. 

The  distance  from  the  surface  to  the  water  bearing  gravel  often 
varies  several  feet  in  different  parts  of  the  field,  and  from  the  re- 
sults of  such  a preliminary  drainage  survey  a plan  may  be  often 
worked  out  by  which  the  permanent  water  level  may  be  sufficiently 
reduced  to  make  the  whole  field  productive  by  laying  short  lines  of 
the  tile  in  this  gravel  instead  of  wasting  long  lines  of  tile  in  the  raw 
muck  where  they  will  do  little  or  no  good. 

]\lany  of  these  unproductive  fields  have  already  been  tiled,  and 
in  some  cases,  the  tile  is  laid  in  raw  muck  to  a depth  of  3^2  feet, 
but  for  the  reason  already  given  the  field  is  still  unproductive.  The 
question  arises  whether  these  old  tile  lines  can  be  utilized  as  a part 
of  a system  to  reduce  the  permanent  water  level.  In  many  cases 
this  can  be  done.  Perhaps  we  can  best  illustrate  the  method  of 
procedure  by  a section  of  the  field  on  the  INIcCoy  farm,  and  an  ex- 
planation of  how  the  tile  already  in  position  can  be  utilized.  Fig. 
4 shows  the  layers,  the  position  of  the  tile,  and  the  permanent 
water  levels  of  a north  and  south  section,  extending  through  both 
the  productive  and  unproductive  portions  of  the  field.  The  distance 
below  the  surface  in  inches  is  given  at  the  side.  The  total  length 
of  the  section  is  650  feet,  and  of  course  the  depth  is  much  exaggerat- 
ed in  proportion  tc  the  length.  On  this  account  the  slopes  appear 
very  abrupt  in  the  figure,  while  in  the  field  the  slopes  are  low,  the 
steepest  found  being  3^2  feet  in  100  feet. 

Near  the  division,  line  between  the  productive  and  the  unpro- 
ductive portions  of  the  field,  the  layers  seem  to  be  broken  by  the  in- 
trusion of  the  clay  at  point  A,  which  prevents  the  movement  of  the 
water  in  the  gravel  from  the  unproductive  to  the  productive  side  of 
the  field.  A similar  ridge  of  ^lay,  rising  above  the  surface  between 


21 


\\jT\yYo^uoC'\x\re 


Pr  0 A VC  c V i 


VC 


the  unproductive  portion  oi  the  field  and  the  creek  (See  Fig.  i), 
prevents  the  flow  of  water  to  the  creek. 

The  permanent  water  level  in  the  productive  part  of  the  field  is 
shown  at  the  same  level  as  the  tile,  while  on  the  unproductive  por- 
tion the  water  line  is  located  at  29  to  30  inches,  as  determined  by 
repeated  observations  and  measurements  made  in  holes  left  open 
for  the  purpose. 

The  simplest  way  to  reduce  this  water  level  on  the  unproduc- 
tive portion  would  be  to  run  a tile  line  deep  enough  to  strike  the 
gravel  at  the  point  B where  it  comes  to  within  5 feet  of  the  surface. 
On  this  land  tne  fall  to  the  creek  is  great  enough  to  permit  this, 
and  the  fall  of  the  main  tile  is  great  enough  to  permit  a lateral  to 
be  5 feet  deep  at  the  point  B and  have  sufficient  fall  to  strike  the 
main  tile  at  a distance  of  about  400  feet  from  B. 

In  some  fields,  however,  the  necessary  fall  cannot  be  obtained 
without  digging  a main  ditch  for  such  a long  distance  that  the 
value  of  the  reclaimed  land  would  not  justify  the  expense  for  ditch- 
ing. In  such  cases  special  methods  of  drainage  can  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  tile  lines  already  laid. 

Such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  5 where  a well  is  sunk 
into  the  water-bearing  gravel  and  bricked  up,  the  tile  line  passing 
through  the  well.  Such  a well  at  once  becomes  a strong  flowing 


22 


spring  and  its  level  cannot  rise  above  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
tile.  In  case  the  flow  of  water  is  very  strong  it  may  be  well  to 
run  a rod  or  two  of  the  tile  in  the  gravel  and  let  it  enter  the  well  at 
the  bottom.  Such  a line  is  best  laid  in  a direction  crossing  the  tile 
already  in,  in  order  not  to  disturb  the  old  tile  line.  The  tile  for  this 
deep  line  will,  of  course,  have  to  be  laid  under  water,  and  it  may  aid 


Fig.  5. 


in  getting  these  tile  in  place  if  they  are  attached  to  a wood  support 
shaped  like  old-fashioned  plank  drain,  before  being  laid  down,  as  it 
is  difficult  to  lay  tile  so  far  under  water  and  get  the  joints  properly 
in  place. 

A few  such  wells  built  along  the  tile  line  involve  but  a small  ex- 
pense and  will  often  reduce  the  water  level  all  that  is  necessary. 
By  leaving  the  top  of  the  well  open  the  flow  of  water  in  the  tile  sys- 
tem can  be  examined  at  any  time. 

Another  system  that  has  been  reported  successful  has  been  tried 
but  I have  not  had  an  opportunity  to  make  a personal  examination 
of  it. 

In  many  places  a sheet  of  water  in  gravel  is  found  at  a depth  of 
30  to  50  feet  below  the  surface.  This  gravel  is  covered  with  from 
20  to  40  feet  of  clay.  This  water  sheet  is  at  nearly  the  same  level 
for  a comparatively  large  area  and  remains  practically  at  the  same 
height  throughout  the  year.  Where  such  a sheet  of  water  under- 
lies unproductive  areas  that  cannot  be  drained  profitably  by  ordin- 
ary means,  a well  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter  is  dug  until  it 
reaches  this  water-bearing  layer  at  a depth  of  40  to  50  feet.  The 
tile  system  is  then  put  in  and  this  well  takes  the  place  of  the  ordin- 
ary outlet  of  the  tile  system.  In  this  way  the  basin  on  top  of  the 
clay  in  which  the  unproductive  soil  is  found,  is  connected  with  the 


23 


deep  gravel  layer  and  this  gravel  layer  has  so  great  a water  holding 
capacity  that  the  drainage  water  entering  the  well  is  readily  carried 
off. 

Of  course  in  putting  in  such  a system  care  must  be  taken  to  put 
the  tile  in  such  a layer  that  the  water  can  readily  enter  the  tile ; and 
the  tile  should  be  laid  and  covered  with  especial  care  in  order  to 
prevent  mud  from  being  carried  into  the  well  and  filling  it  up.  Trials 
with  driven  wells  have  been  made  for  this  purpose,  but  the  pipe 
is  reported  to  have  become  clogged  up. 

There  is  another  class  of  “bogus”  spots  which  consists  simply 
of  lower  places  in  quite  level  fields  in  which  it  would  be  very  diffi- 
cult to  reduce  the  tile  levels  and  the  spots  are  so  low  that  the  special 
devices  in  connection  with  tile  already  laid  can  not  be  used  because 
the  tile  if  laid  through  the  center  of  these  small  low  spots  would 
often  be  not  over  i8  inches  deep.  These  spots  as  a rule  do  not  have 
the  characteristics  of  muck  lands  nor  the  springs  under  them  but  they 
have  a high  water  level  simply  because  the  surface  water  from  the 
land  about  them  flows  into  these  low  places.  The  amount  of  rain 
actually  falling  on  these  spots  is  not  enough  to  cause  any  difficulty 
and  if  the  surface  drainage  from  the  surrounding  land  can  be  kept 
out  the  spots  will  generally  become  productive.  The  ordinary  tile 
layer  simply  runs  the  tile  through  the  center  of  these  spots  and  of 
course  fails  to  reduce  the  water  level  below  the  level  of  this  tile 
which  is  generally  too  near  the  surface  in  these  low  places  although 
it  may  be  33^  to  4 feet  deep  in  the  higher  portion  of  the  field.  The 
simplest  way  to  keep,  out  the  surface  water  from  the  surrounding 
land  is  to  divide  the  tile  line  at  the  edge  of  the  spot  and  send  a line 
around  on  each  side,  uniting  the  lines  again  when  beyond 
hte  spot.  This  permits  the  tile  to  pick  up  the  drainage  water  from  the 
surrounding  land  before  it  gets  to  the  low  places.  A number  of 
farmers  who  have  tried  this  simple  and  inexpensive  method  have 
reported  it  verv  efifective  in  transforming  unsightly  barren  spots  into 
the  most  productive  portions  of  the  field. 

It  often  hapens  that  unproductive  black  lands  have  such  a sit- 
uation that  a single  line  of  tile  may  be  laid  near  the  division  between 
the  muck  land  and  the  higher  lands  near  it  that  will  take  the  water 
from  the  layer  feeding  springs  and  so  reduce  the  general  water  level 
that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  put  any  additional  tile  in  the  muck 
land.  In  such  a case  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  single  tile  line  so 
deep  that  it  will  be  42  inches  below  the  lowest  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  muck  bed.  It  is  also  essential  that  the  tile  be  laid  in  a porous 
layer  of  sub-soil  since  water  moves  very  slowly  through  a sub-soil 
of  raw  muck  and  will  hardly  move  at  all  through  the  marl  (often 
mistaken  for  white  clay)  which  frequently  underlies  these  muck 


24 


beds.  The  raw  muck  and  the  marl  will  often  close  up  the  'joints 
and  pores  of  a tile  so  as  to  render  it  practically  impervious  to  water. 

Some  of  the  springs  about  the  low  areas  in  northern  Indiana 
contain  considerable  carbonate  of  iron  in  solution.  When  the  water 
is  exposed  to  the  air  the  gases  which  aid  in  holding  the  iron  in  solu- 
tion escape  and  the  iron  compounds  are  deposited  as  a fine  brown 
sediment.  In  one  case  that  came  under  my  observation  a main  tile 
line  had  been  entirely  closed  up  by  a deposit  of  this  kind.  Where 
tile  has  already  been  laid  in  such  springy  land  it  is  desirable  to  test 
the  tile  to  see  if  any  trouble  of  this  sort  exists.  The  roots  of  trees 
sometimes  enter  the  tiles  and  stop  them  up  but  most  of  the  unpro- 
ductive lands  are  bare  so  that  roots  seldom  cause  much  trouble  on 
such  lands. 


UNPRODUCTIVE  BLACK  SANDY  SOIL. 

Practically  all  of  the  preceding  material  is  contained  in  bulletin 
57  published  in  1895.  This  bulletin  has  long  been  out  of  print  but 
there  has  been  so  much  inquiry  in  regard  to  this  class  of  land  that  it 
has  become  necessary  to  publish  another  edition  somewhat  revised 
and  to  which  results  of  further  observations  and  analyses  have  been 
added. 

Several  advanced  students  in  Agricultural  Chemistry,  working 
under  my  direction,  have  chosen  as  subjects  of  theses  the  investiga- 
tion of  unproductive  black  soils  found  on  their  home  farms. 

The  muck  lands  on  which  experiments  were  first  conducted 
contained  so  much  organic  matter  that  anything  like  a mechanical 
analysis  of  the  soil  was  impossible.  Some  of  the  unproductive  black 
soils  investigated  later  by  my  students  were  of  another  class,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  sand  and  silt.  ]\Iuch  soil  of  this  character  is  found 
in  central  and  northern  Indiana  and  in  the  northern  counties  much 
of  it  is  not  yet  under  cultivation,  while  the  remainder  has  been  un- 
der cultivation  for  only  a limited  time.  iNIany  unproductive  spots 
are  found  and  where  the  land  has  been  under  cultivation  for  a con- 
siderable time  it  is  reported  that  the  unproductive  spots  have  in- 
creased in  size. 

In  some  localities  large  areas  of  black  sandy  soil  produce  good 
corn  crops  for  two  or  three  years  after  the  first  plowing  and  then 
fail  to  yield  enough  to  be  profitable.  The  same  thing  sometimes  hap- 
pens on  muck  lands.  The  explanation  is  that  the  moss  and  water 
plants  that  originally  covered  the  land  are  turned  under  and  for  a 
short  period  furnish  enough  plant  food  and  permit  enough  air  to 
enter  the  soil  to  provide  for  the  first  crops.  But  when  the  effect 
of  these  coarse  materials  is  exhausted  the  productiveness  of  the 
land  falls  off  very  rapidly. 


25 


NEWTON  COUNTY. 

Investigations  by  Wm.  Simons,  1900-1901. 

The  soils  of  this  county  are  of  three  general  types — muck  soils, 
found  in  the  great  swamp  region  along  the  KankaKee  river;  sandy 
soils  covering  most  of  the  northern  half  of  the  county ; these  shade 
into  what  is  described  locally  as  a rich  prairie  loam  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  county.  It  was  on  the  last  type  of  soil  that  the  investi- 
gation was  conducted  and  the  results  show  that  the  soils  contain  more 
sand  and  less  clay  than  the  usual  types  of  loam. 

The  soil  is  considered  too  sandy  for  wheat  raising. 

The  farmers  who  first  plowed  the  prairie,  state  that  the  unpro- 
ductive areas,  known  locally  as  “Alkali  spots’’  were  not  noticed  for 
some  time  after  the  lands  were  brought  under  cultivation  but  have 
gradually  developed  and  are  increasing  in  size.  . Corn  and  clover 
will  not  grow  on  the  unproductive  spots  but  timothy  and  oats  can 
be  produced  to  some  extent,  although  the  oat  crop  ripens  later  than 
on  the  neighboring  productive  land.  The  unproductive  areas  are 
usually  more  sandy  than  the  productive  lands  about  them  and  the 
sub-soil  of  the  unproductive  soil  is  sand  while  that  of  the  produc- 
tive soil  contains  considerable  clay.  Before  the  country  was  drained 
these  unproductive  areas  were  known  as  “sink  holes”  or  quick  sand 
areas.  They  are  usually  located  in  the  lower  levels  of  the  fields  and 
surrounded  by  the  most  productive  land.  The  owners  have  found 
that  heavy  applications  of  barn-yard  manure  will  make  these  spots 
produce  good  crops  and  that  when  large  quantities  of  straw  are 
burned  on  the  land  a good  crop  follows. 

The  particular  areas  investigated  were  located  one  mile  east 
and  one-half  mile  south  of  Kentland.  One  field  was  tiled,  the  lines 
being  20  rods  apart.  The  unproductive  areas  were  mid-way  be- 
tween the  tile  lines.  Water  levels  were  taken  on  the  25th  of  May. 
Seven  spots  were  examined.  On  five  the  permanent  water  level  was 
found  to  be  over  4 feet  below  the  surface,  on  one  20  inches,  and  on 
another,  30  inches  below  the  surface.  In  the  case  of  one  of  the  high- 
water  levels  the  tile  was  obstructed  while  in  the  other  the  tile  was  not 
deep  enough,  being  at  the  same  depth  as  the  water  level.  On  tlic 
productive  lands  surrounding  these  spots  the  water  lavels  were  from 
3 to  4 feet  below  the  surface.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  other 
cases  than  high-water  level  must  be  sought  to  explain  the  unproduc- 
tiveness of  the  first  five  spots  examined. 

A quantity  of  the  unproductive  soil  was  extracted  with  water 
for  72  hours  and  the  solution  examined  for  soluble  salts.  Potassium 


26 


and  sodium  sulphates  and  sodium  chloride  were  the  only  substances 
dissolved  and  these  were  present  in  such  small  proportions  (0.0645 
per  cent.)  that  no  injurious  action  could  be  ascribed  to  their  pres- 
ence. 

MECHANICAL  ANALYSES. 

The  unproductive  soil  contained  95 . 23  per  cent,  fine  earth 
(passing  0.5  m.  m.  sieve)  while  the  productive  soil  contained  93.93 
per  cent. 

This  fine  earth  on  further  examination  showed  the  following 
results : 


Productive 
Per  cent. 

Unproductive 
Per  cent 
1st  6 inches. 

Unproductive 
Per  cent. 
1th  6 inches. 

Sand 

.0.5 

— 0.25  mm. 

14.10 

26.87 

50.67 

Fine  sand 

.0.25 

— 0.125  “ 

12.50 

1 23.54 

28.56 

Sand  and  silt.  . . 

.0.125—0.05 

41.47 

1 20.91 

9.11 

Clay  and  dust. . . 

.0.05. 

16.40 

14.21 

7.72 

Org-anic  matter. 

10.48 

10.70 

1.34 

Moisture 

3.33 

2.64 

1.00 

Tt  will  be  noticed  that  not  only  is  the  unproductive  soil  more 
sandy  but  that  the  sand  increases  very  rapidly  as  we  enter  the  sub- 
soil. The  moistures  given  are  the  quantities  of  moisture  retained  by 
the  soil  after  exposure  to  the  air  until  no  further  loss  occurred. 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION. 

The  soils  were  examined  by  the  methods  of  the  a.  o.  a.  c. 


' 

Productive 
Per  cent. 

Unproductive 

Soil 

Per  cent. 

Unproductive 
• Sub-soil 
Per  cent. 

1 

Insoluble  in  H Cl 

81.26 

82.34 

92.88 

Soluble  in  H Cl 

Phosphoric  acid 

0.17 

0.22 

0.07 

Potash  

0.47 

0.23 

0.23 

Soda 

0.38 

0.32 

0.19 

Nitrog-en 

0.33 

0.44 

0.04 

The  soil  of  the  unproductive  areas  would  seem  to  have  a fair 
supply  of  total  plant  food,  although  the  potash  is  only  one-half  of 
that  on  the  productive  land.  The  fact  that  in  the  sub-soil  the  reduc- 
tion of  organic  matter  is  accompanied  by  a corresponding  reduction 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  while  the  potash  remains  constant, 
suggests  that  the  potash  is  probably  in  a much  less  available  condi- 


27 


tion  than  the  other  plant  foods  and  that  this_  may  in  part  at  least  ac- 
count for  the  failure  of  corn  and  clover  on  the  unproductive  spots 
where  the  drainage  is  satisfactory. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  even  on  the  productive  lands  the  potash 
may  not  be  in  an  available  form,  for  on  lands  of  this  same  character 
in  other  counties  the  application  of  from  75  to  150  pounds  of  kainit 
to  the  acre  has  given  very  profitable  returns  with  the  corn  crop. 


HENDRICKS  COUNTY. 

Investigation  by  Julian  Ensminger,  1900- 1901. 

The  unproductive  soils  in  this  county  occur  in  spots  or  narrow 
strips  on  which  water  stood  nearly  all  the  time  before  the  country 
was  drained.  Both  the  productive  and  unproductive  soils  are  very 
loose  dark  loams  containing  considerable  organic  matter,  and  pre- 
senting practically  no  difference  in  appearance,  lire  sub-soils  are 
stiff  heavy  clays.  The  water  stood  but  16  inches  below  the  surface 
on  the  unproductive  land  while  on  the  productive  land  the  water 
level  is  practically  down  to  the  tiles,  40  inches. 

The  mechanical  analyses  of  these  soils  show : 


Productive  Per  cent.* 

Unproductive  Per  cent* 

Sand 

0.5  — 0.25  m.  ni. 

2.52 

9.24 

Sand 

0.25—0.05 

16.14 

17.24 

Silt 

0.05—0.01 

76.50 

69.05 

Dust 

0.01 

4.69 

3.35 

Organic  Matter. 

14.26 

13.16 

Moisture 

4.12 

3.44 

The  chemical  analyses  show : 


Productive  Per  cent 

Unproductive  Percent 

Insoluble  in  H Cl 

Soluble  in  H Cl 

71.96 

73.94 

Phosphoric  acid 

0.284 

0 . 222 

Potash 

0.680 

0.181 

Nitrogen 

0.473 

0.557 

• The  high-water  level  of  this  land  would  prevent  the  production 
of  all  ordinary  crops  and  must  be  reduced  before  the  best  results  can 


*Tho  pfrcentage  of  sand,  silt  and  dust  were  calculated  to  basis  of  mineral 
matter  only. 


28 


be  expected  from  any  other  treatment.  The  great  difference  in  the 
amount  of  potash  in  the  two  soils,  otherwise  quite  alike,  would  in- 
dicate the  desirability  of  using  potash  in  this  class  of  land  after 
the  drainage  is  made  satisfactory. 


FOUNTAIN  COUNTY. 

Investigation  by  Julian  Ensminger,  1900-1901. 

This  land  is  a part  of  prairie  that  was  formerly  dotted  with 
clumps  of  jack  oaks  on  the  higher  part  of  the  land.  The  unpro- 
ductive soil  is  found  where  one  of  these  groves  grew  and  has  been 
unproductive  ever  since  the  land  was  cleared.  The  area  of  the  un- 
productive place  has  constantly  been  increasing. 

The  tiles  in  the  land  are  3 feet  deep  and  as  the  unproductive 
spot  is  higher  than  the  general  level  of  the  field  and  the  soil  is  open 
the  unproductiveness  cannot  be  attributed  to  high-water  level.  The 
soil  is  in  fine  physical  condition  and  has  the  appearance  of  very  fer- 
tile land.  Heavy  applications  of  farm-yard  manure  cause  it  to  pro- 
duce a fair  crop  but  without  manure  the  plants  live  but  a few  days 
after  they  appear  above  the  ground.  For  purposes  of  comparison 
Mr.  Ensminger  selected  a fertile  river  bottom  soil  subject  to  over- 
flow. 


MECHANICAL  ANALYSES. 


River  Bottom  1 

Percent’*'  | 

Unproductive 
Per  cent.* 

Sand 

0.5  - — 0.25  ni.  m. 

1.34 

9.74 

Sand 

0.25—0.05 

10.13 

7.45 

Silt 

0.5  —0.01 

83.69 

80.88 

Dust 

0.01 

3.92 

1.91 

Organic  matter. 

6.63 

8.96 

Moisture 

2.52 

2.37 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSES. 


River  Bottom 
Per  cent. 

Unproductive 
Per  cent. 

Insoluble  in  H Cl 

Soluble  in  H Cl 

79.37 

81.95 

Phosphoric  acid 

0.123 

0.154 

Potash 

0.428 

0.281 

Nitrogen 

0.131 

0.186 

*The  percentage  of  sand,  silt  and  dust  were  calculated  to  basis  of  mineral 
matter  only. 


29 


On  this  unproductive  land  it  would  be  desirable  to  conduct  sys- 
tematic experiments  with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The  probabil- 
ity is  that  the  potash  is  not  in  an  available  condition  and  the  same 
may  be  true  of  tne  phosphoric  acid.  The  nitrogen  supply  seems  to 
be  fairly  good  but  possibly  there  may  not  be  enough  lime  present  to 
insure  rapid  nitrification.  Organic  matter  plowed  under  might  be 
useful  in  increasing  the  water  holding  capacity. 

On  the  sandy  black  soils  of  Northwestern  Indiana  there  has  been 
a marked  increase  in  the  use  of  fertilizers  during  the  past  three 
years.  In  some  cases  kainit  alone  has  been  used  and  in  other  cases 
a phosphate  and  potash  containing  8 to  lo  per  cent  of  soluble  and 
reverted  phosphoric  acid  and  4 to  5 per  cent  of  potash  has  been 
used.  Such  a mixture  frequently  consists  simply  of  two  parts  of 
acid  phosphate  of  high  grade  (14  to  16  per  cent  soluble  and  revert- 
ed phosphoric  acid)  and  one  part  of  kainit.  The  usual  application  is 
from  100  to  200  lbs.  per  acre.  It  is  quite  likely  that  heavier  appli- 
cations than  200  lbs.  per  acre  would  prove  profitable. 

In  judging  of  the  effects  of  fertilizers  containing  no  nitrogen  it 
is  very  necessary  to  actually  weigh  or  measure  the  crops  from  equal 
areas  of  fertilized  and  unfertilized  land,  for  such  fertilizers  do  not 
give  striking  results  in  the  color  of  the  foliage  even  when  there  may 
be  a considerable  increase  in  the  quantity  of  the  grain.  In  estimating 
the  yield  in  such  cases  farmers  have  often  said  that  they  could  see 
no  difference  in  fields  on  which  actual  weights  showed  a difference 
of  10  to  15  bushels  per  acre. 


UNPRODUCTIVE  MUCK  OF  DELAWARE  COUNTY, 
Investigation  by  L.  V.  Shoemaker,  igoo-1901. 

These  soils  in  general  appearance  and  texture  resemble  the  soils 
of  the  McCoy  farm.  The  lands  are  located  2^4  miles  east  of  Dale- 
ville.  Two  samples  of  unproductive  soil  and  two  of  productive  soil 
were  selected  for  examination. 

The  Chemical  examination  showed : 


Unproductive  Percent 

Product 

ve  Per  cent 

Moisture 

10.03 

6.25 

4 . 00 

3.37 

Or^<-anic  matter 

48.14 

34.15 

18.77 

12.07 

Insoluble  in  Hydrochloric  acid 

Soluble  in  Hydrochloric  acid 

40.70 

47 . 07 

64.86 

72.78 

Phosphoric  acid 

1 .01 

0.46 

0.16 

0.36 

Potash 

Nitro^^'en 

0.32 

0.35 

1.38 

0.21 

0.22 

0.45 

30 


The  phosphoric  acid  in  the  unproductive  soils  was  so  much  high- 
er than  had  ever  before  been  noted  in  this  State  that  the  results  were 
carefully  checked  on  new  samples.  In  these  soils  the  plant  foods  are 
much  more  abundant  than  in  the  productive  lands  in  the  same  fields. 

The  unproductive  muck  is  i8  to  28  inches  deep  and  is  under- 
laid with  sticky  marl.  The  land  is  drained  by  a large  open  ditch  into 
which  the  tiles  discharge. 

The  water  level  on  the  unproductive  area  was  found  to  be  25 
inches  below  the  surface  while  on  the  productive  area  the  water  level 
was  33  inches. 

These  readings  were  taken  May  4.  On  May  17  the  water  on  the 
unproductive  area  at  stood  at  25^  inches  and  on  the  productive  area 
at  34>4. 

The  first  thing  to  do  with  this  land  is  to  secure  adequate  drainage. 
Probably  the  sticky  marl  prevents  the  water  entering  the  tiles.  The 
supply  of  plant  food  would  seem  to  be  abundant  and  with  proper 
drainage  and  aeration  it  ought  to  become  readily  available. 

All  of  the  unproductive  muck  lands  that  I have  examined  can  be 
drained  and  made  productive  by  one  of  the  methods  mentioned  above. 
But  before  any  special  method  is  determined  upon,  it  will  always  be 
both  desirable  and  profitable  to  make  a preliminar3^  drainage  sur- 
vey of  the  land  in  question  in  order  to  determine  its  present  water 
level  and  the  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  real  water-bearing  lay- 
er. With  these  facts  before  us  the  most  economical  method  of  reduc- 
ing the  water  Ifevel  can  be  determined  upon. 


31 


SUMMARY. 

1.  Thousands  of  acres  of  ground,  now  unproductive,  may  be 
improved  and  made  the  most  productive  corn  lands  in  the  State. 

2.  The  use  of  straw  or  kainit  has  proved  very  profitable  as  a 
means  of  temporary  improvement  of  such  lands. 

3.  The  permanent  improvement  of  such  land‘d  demands,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  above  treatment,  efficient  drainage.  This  drainage  will 
usually  be  of  a special  character. 

4.  Before  making  any  outlay  for  the  permanent  improvement 
of  such  lands  a preliminary  drainage  survey  should  be  made,  and 
the  system  of  improvement  should  be  based  on  the  results  of  this 
survey. 

5.  On  black  lands  containing  considerable  sand  but  not  having 
a high-water  level,  kainit  and  other  potash-salts  have  proved  very 
profitable  fertilizers  for  corn.  The  other  potash-salts  are  muriate 
of  potash  and  sulphate  of  potash.  They  contain  about  four  times  as 
much  potash  as  kainit.  The  application  should  be  from  25  to  50  lbs. 
per  acre  to  equal  the  usual  application  of  kainit.  A pound  of  actual 
potash  in  the  form  of  high-grade  salts  costs  less  than  in  the  form  of 
low  grade. 

On  this  class  of  land  it  might  be  well  to  try  phosphoric  acid,  in 
addition  to  the  potash  salts,  at  the  rate  of  100  to  200  lbs.  per  acre  of 
high-grade  acid  phosphate. 

Much  land  of  this  character  is  found  in  the  Northern  counties 
of  the  state. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  96.  Vol.  XII. 
July,  1903. 


SUGGESTIONS  CONCERNING 

CARE  OF  MILK  AND  BUTTER  MAKING 

ON  THE  FARM. 


PuDllslied  liy  ilie  siatlon: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA, 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


WiirLiAM  V.  Stuart^  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
W11.UAM  A.  Banks,  - _ _ . LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 

Sykvkster  Johnson,  - - . . Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Bejam,  - - - Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  - _ . LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  - _ . . port  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - _ Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Charles  B.  Stemen,  - . . . port  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Major,  - . _ . Shelby ville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University 
Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 
Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,/3A,<^.  - - - Associate  Agriculturist. 

WiLLAM  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Assistant  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer, - Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  -----  Clerk  and  Librarian. 


SUGGESTIONS  CONCERNING  CARE  OF  MILK  AND 
BUTTER  MAKING  ON  THE  FARM. 


E.  VanNorman^  B.  S. 

While  Indiana  is  not  counted  among  the  leading  dairy  states, 
there  is  a large  amount  of  milk  produced  which  reaches  Chicago, 
Louisville,  Cincinnati,  Indianapolis,  Fort  Wayne,  Evansville  and 
other  cities,  in  the  form  of  milk,  cream  and  butter,  to  say  nothing  of 
that  which  finds  a market  closer  home. 

The  comparatively  little  study  given  the  subject  of  farm  butter 
making  and  care  of  milk  by  the  large  number  who  ‘'only  make 
enough  to  supply  the  family  and  sell  or  trade  the  surplus  at  the 
store,”  or  “send  a little  to  the  creamery  after  the  calves  are  weaned 
the  possibility  of  increasing  the  income  from  the  few  cows  kept,  to- 
gether with  the  frequent  calls  upon  the  Experiment  Station  for  in- 
formation relating  to  the  care  of  milk,  butter  making,  separation, 
etc.,  has  prompted  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin  of  general  infor- 
mation which  is  not  a report  of  original  research ; rather  a gathering 
together  of  useful  data  and  suggestions  not  easily  accessible  to  the 
farmer. 

In  the  new  agricultural  building  there  has  been  equipped  a dairy 
laboratory  for  teaching  and  experimental  purposes.  It  is  the  wish 
of  those  in  charge  to  make  this  department  of  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion as  useful  to  the  state  as  possible ; to  this  end  those  interested  are 
invited  to  correspond  with  and  call  upon  the  Dairy  Department 
for  such  assistance  as  it  can  render. 

Information  is  desired  regarding  the  location  of  creameries, 
cheese  factories  and  the  development  of  the  dairy  interests  in  general. 


INDIANA  CONDITIONS. 

The  last  Government  Census  shows  221,897  farms  in  Indiana, 
214,366  of  which  are  reported  as  having  milch  cows,  or  96.5  per 
cent  of  Indiana  farms  have  milch  cows  on  them,  while  only  about 
three  per  cent  of  the  farms  derive  as  much  as  40  per  cent  of  their 
income  from  the  sale  of  dairy  products,  and  are  therefore  called 
dairy  farms.  The  great  mass  of  farms  undoubtedly  belong  to  the 
class  where  cows  are  kept  to  supply  the  family  with  milk  and  butter 
or  to  raise  beef  calves  and  are  only  milked  for  a time  after  the  calves 
are  weaned.  The  surplus  over  and  above  the  family  needs  is  dis- 
posed of  in  the  form  of  butter  to  the  huckster  or  the  grocer  and  often 
paid  for  in  trade,  bringing  only  12  to  15  cents  per  pound.  Much 
of  this  butter,  because  made  under  unfavorable  surroundings,  as  a 


4 


secondary  consideration  and  in  rather  small  amounts,  does  not  find 
a ready  market  among  consumers  but  goes  to  the  huckster,  the 
country  store  and  eventually  the  renovating  factory,  where  it  is 
melted,  clarified,  churned  with  milk  or  cream,  worked,  salted  and 
sold  to  the  consumer  in  the  larger  cities  at  from  five  to  ten  cents  per 
pound  more  than  the  producer  received.  Not  infrequently  the  con- 
sumer has  asked  for  the  best  creamery  butter  and  thinks  he  is  re- 
ceiving what  he  has  paid  for,  when  in  reality  it  is  renovated  butter. 
The  law  now  requires  that  renovated  butter  be  so  marked,  which  in 
a measure  protects  the  purchaser. 

Believing  that  there  is  a large  loss  annually  to  the  Indiana  farm- 
ers in  producing  12  to  15  cent  butter,  when  the  consumers,  especially 
in  our  large  towns  and  cities,  complain  of  an  insufficient  supply  ol 
the  best  butter,  and  openly  say  that  they  prefer  oleomargarine  to 
much  of  the  country  butter  they  are  forced  to  take,  the  following 
suggestions  are  offered  with  the  hope  that  some  may  be  in  a position 
to  take  advantage  of  them. 

First.  If  possible  send  the  milk  or  cream  to  a good  creamery, 
where,  with  the  necessary  apparatus  and  some  one  who  makes  a 
business  of  buttermaking,  you  will  have  the  advantage  of  the  high- 
er price  that  large  shipments  of  butter  of  uniform  quality  com- 
mand, to  say  nothing  of  the  increased  yield  of  butter  which  may 
be  secured  with  the  separator  as  compared  with  the  gravity 
methods  usually  of  necessity  employed  on  the  farm  where  dairying 
is  not  made  a business  of;  or  the  saving  in  hard  work  which  com- 
monly falls  to  the  lot  of  the  women  folks. 

Second.  If  the  creamery  is  not  available,  study  the  principles 
involved  and  methods  employed  by  the  best  butter  makers,  and 
make  such  changes  in  your  methods  as  may  be  necessary  to  enable 
you  to  make  a first  class  article  which  will  command  at  least  20  or 
25  cents  per  pound  on  the  market.  Then  keep  cows  and  make 
enough  butter  to  warrant  the  care  necessary  to  make  butter  of  uni- 
form excellence  and  enough  of  it  to  pay  to  get  it  to  a profitable 
market. 

Third.  If  neither  of  the  above  plans  are  practicable  under  your 
conditions,  make  just  as  little  butter  as  possible  to  be  sold  at  15  cents 
per  pound  or  less,  as  the  margin  of  profit,  if  any,  is  too  small  to 
justify  the  hard  work  and  time  required  in  making  cheap  butter,  and 
the  market  is  overstocked  with  it. 

The  last  Government  census  report  also  shows  that  the  average 
Indiana  milch  cow  only  produces  $27.40  worth  of  dairy  products 
per  year,  while  careful  estimates  show  that  the  ordinary  cow  eats 
feed  which  at  market  prices  is  worth  from  $29.00  to  $32.00  a year. 
The  Experiment  Station  records  show  that  many  cows,  reasonably 
well  fed  and  cared  for,  will  produce  250  pounds  of  butter  which, 


5 


at  20  cents,  would  be  $50 . 00  for  the  year’s  product  as  compared  with 
the  low  average  above.  In  the  leading  dairy  counties  of  Illinois,  the 
average  returns  for  all  the  cows,  good  and  bad,  is  from  $43.00  to 
$50.00  per  cow  per  year. 

Making  due  allowance  for  errors  in  figures  and  in  judgment 
the  fact  remains  that  the  income  from  many  of  the  cows  now  on 
Indiana  farms,  does  not  pay  for  the  feed  eaten.  In  very  many  cases 
the  returns  can  be  increased  by  some  change  in  the  methods  of  care 
and  feed  of  the  cows  to  reduce  cost  and  increase  yield,  and  in  care 
of  milk  and  butter  to  save  loss  and  improve  quality. 

A further  study  of  the  returns  from  the  individual  cows  in  the 
herd  will  frequently  show  that  there  is  one  or  more  cows  which  pro- 
duce from  one  to  ten  dollars  less  milk  or  butter,  in  a year,  than  the 
value  of  the  pasture  and  feed  eaten.  If  such  individuals  were  dis- 
posed of  even  for  little  or  nothing  the  remaining  cows  in  the  herd 
would  show  a larger  margin  of  profit. 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  CARE  AND  FEED. 


Have  some  oats  and  peas,  sweet  corn,  sorghum,  early  planted 
field  corn,  other  forage  crops,  or  left  over  silage,  to  supplement  pas- 
tures in  dry  time. 

Allow  the  cows  in  a darkened  shed  or  barn  in  fly  time. 

Keep  the  cows  out  of  the  stalk  field  in  winter.  Cut  the  corn 
and  feed  fodder  in  the  stable  or  yard. 

Shelter  from  raw  winds,  even  on  bright  days  in  the  winter. 

Feed  a combination  of  feeds  from  the  following  lists,  at  least 
one  from  each  rather  than  only  one  or  two  from  either,  and  that 
corn,  and  corn  stover  or  timothy  hay. 

I II 


corn 

corn  stover 
corn  silage 
millet  hay 
oat  straw 
sorghum  hay 
timothy  hay 
wheat  straw 


alfalfa  hay 
bran 

clover  hay 
cow  pea  hay 
cotton  seed  meal 
gluten  meal 
linseed  meal 
oats 

soy  beans 


Since  the  feeds  in  the  first  column  are  rich  in  fat  and  heat  pro- 
ducing material,  and  especially  poor  in  protein,  which  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  milk  production,  and  the  feeds  in  the  second  column 


6 


are  all  much  richer  in  protein,  a larger  yield  of  milk  will  be  secured 
when  a combination  of  feeds  from  the  two  groups  is  fed. 

Breed  the  cows  to  calve  in  the  early  fall,  and  make  the  most 
milk  and  butter  at  the  season  when  conditions  are  favorable  for  mak- 
ing and  prices  are  high,  and  there  is  more  time  to  care  for  the  cows, 
the  milk  and  butter. 

Don’t  breed  to  a scrub  sire.  The  best  one  available  is  none  too 
good. 

Raise  the  calves  by  hand  and  substitute  vegetable  fat  in  the 
form  of  ground  flaxseed  jelly,  and  later  corn  meal,  etc.,  in  connec- 
tion with  skim  milk,  for  the  butter  fat  in  the  whole  milk. 

Know  which  cow  is  not  earning  her  feed  and  dispose  of  her. 

Brush  with  a brush  or  wipe  with  a damp  cloth  the  udder  and 
flank  before  milking.  Twenty  to  90  times  as  much  dirt  falls  in  the 
milk  from  the  unbrushed,  unwashed  udder  as  from  the  washed  one.* 

Milk  with  dry  hands. 

Don’t  allow  the  milk  to  stand  in  the  barn. 

Don’t  use  a so-called  dilution  separator;  set  a can  of  milk  into 
cold  water,  but  don’t  mix  water  and  milk.  An  eighth  to  a third  of 
the  butter  fat  is  often  lost  by  diluting  the  milk  with  water.** 

Don’t  mix  sweet  and  sour  cream  less  than  12  hours  before 
churning. 

Own  and  use  a dairy  thermometer — cost  25  to  50  cents — it  will 
save  many  times  its  cost,  if  it  is  used  and  the  cream  is  churned  at 
the  right  temperature.  They  may  be  had  from  any  dairy  supply 
house  and  very  often  from  the  local  druggist.  They  should  be  all 
glass.  The  cheaper  ones  are  not  always  accurate  and  should  there- 
fore be  compared  with  a reliable  one. 

Salt  by  weight  or  measure — not  by  guess. 

Wash  the  butter  milk  out. 

Don’t  overwork  the  butter;  it  injures  the  texture. 

Have  a butter  worker ; it  saves  laber  and  helps  quality. 

Put  butter  in  rectangular  prints,  (they  are  more  attractive  and 
pack  better.) 

Use  parchment  paper,  not  wax  paper. 

Use  dairy  salt ; not  table  or  cheap  barrel  salt. 

Encourage  some  young  member  of  the  family  to  take  charge  of 
the  butter  making,  and  make  a business  of  it.  A Hendricks  county 
girl  who  learned  to  make  good  butter,  makes  a business  of  it,  has 
increased  her  trade  from  the  product  of  three  cows  to  that  of  15, 
and  could  sell  more  butter  if  she  had  it. 


*Illinois  Bulletin  No.  84. 

**Cornell  New  York  Bulletin  No.  151. 


7 


Be  prompt  and  regular  with  delivery. 

There  is  a reasonable  profit  in  good  cows  well  cared  for. 

There  is  a good  market  for  more  first  class  butter,  milk,  cream 
and  cheese  than  is  produced. 

Indiana  is  nearer  the  great  markets  than  many  of  the  leading 
dairy  states. 

Much  land  in  the  state  is  better  adapted  to  dairying  than  to 
grain  farming. 

Much  land  needs  the  manure  that  can  be  produced  by  keeping 
more  good  milch  cows  upon  it. 


CARE  OF  MILK  FOR  CREAMERY,  CHEESE  FACTORY  OR 

SHIPPING. 

• The  Cow. — The  first  essential  for  good  milk  is  to  prevent  the 
dirt  getting  into  the  milk.  It  takes  but  a moment  to  brush  the  udder 
and  nearby  parts  just  before  milking.  It  is  even  better  to  wipe  them 
off  with  a damp  cloth,  as  the  dust  will  then  adhere  to  the  damp  hair 
rather  than  fall  into  the  pail. 

The  milk  should  be  removed  from  the  stable  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, as  it  absorbs  stable  odors  very  quickly. 

Strainers. — With  the  best  of  care  there  will  be  some  foreign 
matter  fall  into  the  milk,  which  a strainer  will  remove.  A fine  wire 
strainer  is  better  than  none,  but  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  cheese 
cloth,  if  properly  cleaned  each  time  after  using,  is  one  of  the  best 
strainers  available.  The  strainer  cloth  should  be  rinsed  in  cold  water, 
washed  clean  in  warm  water,  scalded  and  hung  in  the  sun  if  possible. 

Strain,  and  cool  by  placing  the  can  in  cold  water  and  stir  a few 
times  within  the  first  hour.  Use  a thermometer  enough  to  know 
whether  it  gets  cold  or  not.  If  necessary,  change  the  water.  It 
should  be  down  to  50°  F.  at  least,  and  the  nearer  40°  the  better. 

It  is  the  getting  the  milk  cold  which  counts,  not  the  putting  it 
in  the  water.  A can  of  milk  will  cool  faster  in  water  at  45°  than  in 
the  air  at  35°. 

Keep  tight  covers  off  the  cans  while  cooling,  to  allow  escape  of 
animal  gases  and  heat.  No  objection  to  light  cloth  cover  to  keep  out 
dust  and  flies.  Be  sure  the  air  is  pure  where  the  milk  is  exposed. 

Do  not  mix  warm  milk  with  cold,  as  it  will  sour  both  very 
soon. 


HANDLING  SEPARATOR  CREAM. 

Tlie  same  care  and  general  plan  should  be  used  in  handling 
separator  cream,  either  for  shipping  or  for  the  creamery.  The 


8 


No.  I. 

Cut  No.  I.*  A source  of  Human  Food.  Clean,  even  in  Mid-Winter. 


*Bulletin  No.  84  Illinois. 


9 


mm 


' No.  2. 

Cut  No.  2.*  After  a Run  of  Three  Weeks  on  Pasture.  Imagine  the 
Filthy  Condition  During  Winter. 


10 


separating  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  milking  is  finished,  as 
the  milk  is  then  usually  warm  enough  to  separate  most  thoroughly. 

Cool  and  stir  the  cream  immediately  after  separating.  Do  not 
mix  warm  and  cold  cream.  Cool  the  warm  cream  first. 

Keep  the  cream  in  cold  water  if  possible. 

Wash  the  separator  thoroughly  after  every  using,  scalding  with 
boiling  water  the  last  thing. 


WASHING  MILK  UTENSILS. 

First  rinse  with  cold  or  luke  warm  water;  wash  thoroughly 
with  water  as  warm  as  the  hands  will  stand,  using  some  good  alkali 
washing  powder,  such  as  sal  soda,  Gold  Dust,  etc.  Rinse  thor- 
oughly with  boiling  water  and  if  possible  place  in  the  sun  shine. 

If  wiped  dry  with  a clean  towel  the  tin  will  be  brighter,  but  if 
made  thoroughly  hot  by  the  rinsing,  it  will  dry  without  wiping,  will 
not  rust  and  be  cleaner  than  if  wiped  with  a towel  which  is  damp 
and  as  unsanitary  as  is  frequently  used.  Use  a brush,  not  a cloth,  for 
washing  tinware. 


CREAM  SEPARATION. 

^lilk  is  ‘‘an  emulsion  of  fats  in  a watery  solution  of  Alkaline 
salts,  casein  and  sugar.”* 

The  average  composition  of  milk  is  as  follows  :* 


water  

87-17% 

fat  

3-69% 

casein  

3-02% 

albumen  

53% 

sugar  

4.88% 

ash  

71% 

'total 100.00% 

“Cream  is  that  portion  of  the  milk  into  which  most  of  the  fat 
has  been  gathered.”* 

Fat  being  lighter  than  the  water  or  the  solids  not  fat  (sugar, 
casein,  etc.)  raises  to  the  top  when  allowed  to  stand  in  a vessel,  and 
in  so  doing  carries  with  it  a little  of  the  other  solids  not  fat,  and 
constitutes  what  we  commonly  call  cream.  The  heavier  portion 
(i.  e.  skim  milk)  settles  to  the  bottom  by  reason  of  the  force  of 
gravity. 


*Wing — Milk  and  its  Products. 


METHODS  OF  SECURING  CREAM. 


Shallow  Pans. — The  objection  to  this  method  is  the  large  loss 
of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  the  exposure  of  the  cream  to  unde- 
sirable odors  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  a large  number  of  vessels. 

The  best  results  with  pans  will  be  secured  when  the  milk  is  set 
at  rest  immediately  after  mjlking,  in  a room  where  the  temperature 
is  6o°  or  below.  A loss  of  .6  to  .7  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk 
is  to  be  expected,  while  it  often  runs  much  higher. 


Cold  Deep  Setting. — The  milk  is  set  in  deep,  narrow  vessels, 
surrounded  by  cold  water.  It  may  be  only  a common  shot  gun  can 
(about  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  22  to  24  inches  deep)  set  in 
water,  in  a barrel  sawed  off  the  right  height,  and  protected  from 
dust  and  bad  odors ; or  it  may  be  a high  priced  cabinet  creamer, 
handsomely  painted  and  trimmed  with  nickle-plated  faucets,  knobs, 
etc.  The  essential  features  for  best  results,  are  narrow,  deep  cans, 
set  in  water  at  a temperature  of  45°  F.  or  below,  for  at  least  12  hours. 
The  cream  may  be  skimmed  off  the  top  with  a cup,  or  better,  a cone 
skimmer,  or  the  skim  milk  may  be  drawn  off  from  the  bottom  by  a 
faucet,  stopping  so  as  to  leave  the  cream  in  the  can. 

The  loss  may  be  only  .2  to  .4%  under  favorable  conditions, 
while  warm  water  and  carelessness  in  removing  the  cream  will 
cause  much  larger  losses. 

The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  reports  the  following  per 
cents  of  fat  left  in  skim  milk  from  milk  set  at  various  temperatures.* 

Temperature  Average  percent  of  fat 
degrees  F.  in  the  skim  milk. 

32—36  . 19 

40  .36 

50  .84 

58 — 60  . 84 

58 — 60  . 84 

62  1.40 

These  figures  emphasize  the  necessity  of  having  the  water  cold 
which  surrounds  the  cans  of  milk,  otherwise  the  amount  of  butter 
fat  in  the  skim  milk  will  be  very  large.  The  cans  of  milk  should  be 
placed  in  the  water  as  soon  after  milking  as  possible. 


Milk  set  in  water  at 


running  water 
open  air  at 


Dilution  Separators,  so  called  “water  separators”  are  merely 
deep  cans  in  which  the  milk  is  mixed  with  water ; usually  as  much 
water  as  milk,  and  allowed  to  stand  two  to  24  hours.  They  usually 
have  a faucet  at  the  bottom  for  drawing  off  the  skim  milk  and  water, 
and  a strip  of  glass  by  means  of  which  the  cream  line  my  be  seen. 


*Michigan  bulletin,  167. 


12 


There  have  been  many  variations  and  adaptations  of  the  principle 
of  dilution,  but  all  are  equally  inefficient,  and  these  miscalled  “sep- 
arators” have  commonly  been  sold  at  exhorbitant  prices  compared 
with  their  cost  and  merit.  The  loss  of  butter  fat  will  be  from  . 7 to 
1%  under  favorable  conditions,  and  usually  much  more,  especially  if 
allowed  to  stand  only  three  or  four  hours  before  skimming. 


THE  HAND  SEPARATOR. 

In  the  commercial  world  the  word  “separator”  as  applied  to 
the  dairy  business  is  used  to  mean  a machine  with  which  cream  is 
secured  by  substituting  centrifugal  force  for  the  force  of  gravit} . 

In  the  mechanical  separator  a small  steel  bowl  is  made  to  revolve 
very  rapidly,  developing  centrifugal  force,  which  is  spoken  of  as  the 
tendency  to  fly  away  from  the  center  around  which  it  is  moving. 
Swinging  a bucket  of  water  over  one’s  head  fast  enough  so  the 
water  does  not  come  out  even  though  the  bucket  be  upside  down, 
is  an  illustration  in  which  the  centrifugal  force,  being  greater  than 
the  force  of  gravity,  the  contents  stay  in  the  bucket.  The  old  game 
of  crack-the-whip  is  another  illustration.  The  faster  the  speed  the 
greater  the  centrifugal  force.  In  the  mechanical  separator  the  bowl 
revolves  so  fast  that  there  is  sufficient  force  to  bring  the  heavy  por- 
tion of  the  milk,  that  is  the  skim  milk,  next  to  the  wall  of  the  bowl 
immediately,  forcing  the  cream  toward  the  center.  By  a suitable  ar- 
rangement of  outlets  the  skim  milk  is  pushed  out  at  one  and  the 
cream  another  as  more  milk  is  let  into  the  bowl.  The  process  is  a 
continuous  one. 

The  advantages  of  the  hand  separator  are,  i — The  gathering  of 
practically  all  of  the  fat  into  the  cream,  thus  reducing  the  loss  in 
the  skim  milk  to  the  minimum ; 2 — The  milk  may  be  separated  im- 
mediately after  milking,  so  the  skim  milk  may  be  fed  while  it  is  still 
warm  with  the  animal  heat,  (which  adds  considerably  to  its  feeding 
value  as  compared  with  cold  skim  milk  warmed  up).  3 — Only  the 
cream,  which  is  about  one  sixth  of  the  milk,  needs  to  be  cooled. 
Often  a suitable  place  for  the  separator  may  be  found  at  or  near  the 
barn,  in  wdiich  case  only  the  cream  and  the  parts  of  the  machine  to 
be  washed  have  to  be  carried  to  the  house,  which  is  a considerable 
saving  of  labor  over  carrying  all  the  milk  to  the  house  and  the  skim 
milk  "back  to  the  barn.  4 — The  thickness  of  the  cream  may  be  con- 
trolled. 5. — There  is  undoubtedly  a saving  of  labor  as  compared 
w'ith  handling  much  milk  in  either  pans,  crocks  or  deep  setting.  6. — 
Much  of  the  dirt  getting  into  the  milk  during  milking,  which  is  not 
dissolv'd  by  the  warm  milk,  is  left  in  the  bowl  or  thrown  into  the 


13 


skim  milk,  so  under  certain  conditions  the  quality  of  the  cream  for 
butter  making  is  improved.  But  the  separator  won’t  take  out  the 
aith  that  has  been  dissolved. 

The  chief  objection  to  the  separator  is  its  first  cost,  which  is 
from  $60.00  to  $125.00  for  farm  size  machines,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  milk  they  will  skim  per  hour. 

In  buying,  it  is  well  not  to  get  a very  small  machine,  as  it  takes 
too  long  to  run  the  milk  through;  if  later  two  or  three  more  cows 
are  added  the  time  required  for  turning  the  small  separator  is  con- 
siderable, while  the  difference  in  first  cost  of  the  larger  machine 
will  soon  be  made  up  by  saving  in  time  required  to  skim  each  day’s 
milk  with  the  larger  size. 

Some  desirable  features  of  a separator  are — 

1.  — Clean  skimming  under  a wide  range  of  conditions,  such  as 
warm  and  cold  milk  and  thick  or  thin  cream.  The  skim  milk  from 
a good  separator  properly  run  should  not  contain  to  exceed  .05  of 
one  per  cent  of  fat,  and  under  ordinarily  favorable  conditions 
should  show  even  less  than  that  in  the  double  neck  test  bottle. 

2.  — Ease  of  washing ; all  parts  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
easily  gotten  at  for  washing,  few  corners  and  tubes. 

3.  — Easy  running.  All  machines  of  the  same  manufacture  are 
not  equally  easy  running. 

4.  — Durable  construction,  few  parts,  well  made.  We  have  in 
our  dairy  department  several  makes  of  separators  which  do  satis- 
factory work.  Each  has  its  admirers  among  the  many  students 
who  have  used  them  all,  while  no  one  has  a monopoly  of  all  the 
good  points. 


OPERATION  OF  SEPARATOR. 

The  thoroughness  with  which  the  separator  does  its  work  de- 
pends very  much  on  the  speed  of  the  bowl,  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  and  the  flow  of  milk  into  the  bowl. 

Speed. — The  handle  should  be  turned  steadily,  care  being  taken 
to  keep  a constant  even  pressure  upon  it,  all  the  way  around,  not 
pushing  down  hard  and  pulling  up  hard,  while  for  a moment  when 
the  crank  is  down  and  again  at  the  top  there  is  no  pressure  upon  it. 
Turn  at  the  speed  the  directions  call  for,  or  if  it  is  found  by  testing 
the  skim  milk  that  it  is  not  skimming  clean,  an  increased  speed  of 
from  three  to  five  turns  per  minute  will  usually  help  matters.  The 
importance  of  keeping  up  the  speed  is  shown  by  the  following  two 
experiements.* 


*Michigan  bulletin  167. 


14 


“In  the  first  the  power  was  removed  from  a machine  running  at 
full  speed  and  full  capacity  separating  600  pounds  of  milk  per  hour, 
and  the  skim  milk  caught  in  small  lots  and  tested  separately.  The 
following  is  the  record  of  the  test  of  the  first  seven  quarts  of  skim 
milk  coming  from  the  machine  after  the  power  was  removed. 

per  cent  fat  in 
skim  milk. 


1st 

03 

2nd 

03 

3i"d 

045 

4th 

05 

5th 

10 

6th 

7th 

16 

In  the  second  case  a hand  separator  was  turned  at  different  rates 
of  speed,  42  turns  of  the  crank  being  recommended  by  the  manu- 
facturers. The  following  are  the  results. 

Per  cent  fat  in 
skim  milk. 

45  turns  per  minute 02 

42  “ “ “ 04 

39  “ " “ 047 

36  “ “ “ 05 

Temperature  of  Milk. — When  milk  is  separted  at  milking  time, 
unless  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time,  it  will  be  at  the  best  temper- 
ature for  separation  and  it  should  be  separated  then  if  possible. 
Cold  milk  should  be  warmed  up  to  80°  to  90°.  While  a can  of  milk 
may  be  set  on  or  near  the  stove  to  warm  it  up,  it  is  better  to  place 
it  in  warm  water.  WTen  the  milk  is  cold  the  cream  is  thicker  and 
if  too  cold  may  clog  the  separator.  If  necessary  to  skim  cold  milk, 
it  will  often  help  matters  to  adjust  the  cream  screw  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  cream.  As  there  is  usually  a large  loss 
in  skimming  milk  too  cold,  it  should  be  avoided. 

Flow  of  Milk,  on  most  hand  separators  is  fix^^d  by  the  manu- 
facturers and  needs  no  attention  except  to  see  that  the  faucet  does 
not  jar  partially  shut  and  that  the  supply  of  milk  is  kept  up  to  the 
last. 

Care. — The  separator  does  not  need  much  oil  at  a time,  but 
every  bearing  requiring  oil  should  have  some  each  time  the  machine 
is  used.  Occassionally  the  bearings  should  be  liberally  oiled  with 
kerosene ; this  will  cut  out  any  gum  and  dirt  and  help  much  to  keep 
the  machine  in  an  easy  running  condition. 


15 


The  relative  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  skim  milk  from  the  different 
methods  of  securing  the  cream  is  as  follows : 


Dilution  method 

7 

to  I 

per  cent 

Shallow  pans  

5 

to 

•7 

a a. 

Deep  setting 

2 

to 

•5 

a u 

Centrifugal  sepaator 

03 

to 

•05 

a u 

There  will  be  at  least  3,000  pounds  of  skim  milk  from  a good 
cow  in  one  year.  With  the  above  per  cents  as  a safe  basis,  one  may 
easily  figure  the  amount  of  butter  fat  being  lost  by  the  methods  he 
is  using.  The  above  figures  are  for  ordinarly  good  conditions.  The 
losses  will  be  greater  when  the  operator  is  careless.  And  on  many 
farms  they  are  greater. 

The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  secured  skim  milk  from  a 
number  of  farms  and  found  it  contained  as  high  as  1.5%  of  fat. 
With  average  whole  milk  only  testing  about  4%,  that  proportion  of 
loss  is  very  great. 


CREAM  RIPENING. 

Speaking  generally  the  ripening  of  cream  is  all  of  the  treatment 
it  receives  from  the  time  the  milk  it  drawn  until  it  is  churned,  while 
specifically  and  commonly  it  is  the  particular  treatment  given  the 
cream  after  separation  to  prepare  it  for  churning. 

The  general  market  wants  a butter  with  a flavor  that  can  only  be 
secured  by  ripening  the  cream  properly. 

Ripening  is  a souring  of  the  cream.  When  cream  or  milk  sours 
the  milk  sugar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid,  by  lactic  acid  producing 
germs.  The  bacteriologist  finds  that  there  are  several  forms  of  lac- 
tic acid  producing  bacteria ; also  that  some  forms  or  bacteria  pro- 
duce acid  without  thickening  or  curdling;  others  produce  the  re- 
verse; again  some  produce  gas;  while  slimy  or  ropy  milk,  red,  01 
sometimes  called  bloody  milk  are  other  products  of  bacterial  growth 
in  milk  and  cream.  In  general,  the  changes  which  occur  in  milk  are 
due  to  some  form  of  bacterial  life. 

Bacteria  are  minute  forms  of  plant  life ; they  grow  rapidly  at  a 
temperature  of  from  60°  to  90°  ; they  require  food  ?uid  moisture  like 
higher  forms  of  plant  life ; they  are  prevented  from  growing  by 
cold ; are  killed  by  moist  heat,  most  of  them  by  a temjn-atnre  of 
boiling  water;  they  may  remain  inactive  for  a long  time,  then  grow 
rapidly  when  conditions  again  become  favorable ; they  grow  or  mul- 
tiply usually  by  division,  which  may  happen  every  twenty  minutes, 
or  may  require  several  hours;  in  the  process  of  their  growth  they 


i6 


cause  some  change  in  the  material  in  which  they  are  growing.  It 
may  be  a useful  or  a harmful  one  for  the  dairyman. 

The  character  of  the  change  will  be  largely  determined  by  the 
kind  of  bacteria  present,  whether  from  the  dust  of  the  air,  dusty 
hay,  the  flanks  of  the  animal,  the  seams  of  imperfectly  washed  uten- 
sils, from  a good  home  made  starter  or  a commercial  starter  from. 
a pure  culture.  The  change  may  be  retarded  by  excluding  bac- 
teria, by  stopping  their  growth  with  cold,  or  by  killing  with  heat. 
The  change  may  be  hastened  by  introducing  bactena,  or  by  a fav- 
orable temperature.  The  rapidity  of  the  change  will  depend  on 
numbers  of  bacteria  present  and  whether  the  temperature  is  favor- 
able to  their  rapid  growth  or  not.  In  the  farm  dairy  the  ripening  of 
the  cream  is  usually  brought  about  by  the  bacteria  which  acciden- 
tally gain  access  to  the  milk  and  cream,  and  fortunately  for  the 
dairymen  the  lactic  acid  germs  usually  predomniate,  esepcially  in 
the  clean,  well  kept  dairy. 

An  understanding  of  these  principles  should  materially  assist  in 
the  handling  of  dairy  products  to  bring  about  desired  or  prevent  un- 
desirable changes. 

The  cream  should  be  kept  cold,  below  50°  if  possible,  until 
enough  is  secured  for  a churning.  It  should  then  be  warmed  up  to 
from  65°  to  70°  and  held  until  it  becomes  sour  and  has  a pleasant 
acid  taste ; occasionally  a little  higher  temperature  may  be  needed. 
If  the  cream  was  sweet  it  will  usually  require  i8to  24  hours  to  sour 
it.  Xo  cream  should  be  added  to  that  to  be  churned  for  at  least  12 
to  18  hours  previous  to  churning;  during  this  period  it  should  be 
stirred  several  times  to  insure  uniform  ripeness.  When  cream  of 
unequal  degrees  of  ripeness  is  churned,  it  requires  a longer  time  to 
churn  and  there  is  a much  larger  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the  butter 
milk.  AMien  a layer  of  cream  is  seen  on  the  butter  milk  that  has 
stood,  it  is  usually  due  to  churning  cream  too  sweet,  or  part  sweei 
and  part  ripe  cream. 

At  least  two  hours  before  the  cream  is  churned  it  should  be 
cooled  to  50° — 56°.  If  not  too  ripe  it  may  be  held  at  this  low  tem- 
perature for  12  hours.  This  cooling  will  do  much  to  make  a firm 
butter.  When  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  desired  flavor  or  when 
undesirable  flavors  due  to  the  kind  of  bacteria  which  predominate 
are  troublesome,  or  when  under  cleanly  conditions  in  very  cold 
weather  the  cream  does  not  ripen  sufficiently  or  even  enough,  a 
starter  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

Starter. — A starter  may  be  sour  skim  milk  or  butter  milk  put 
in  the  cream  to  hasten  or  control  the  character  of  the  ripening. 

Butter  milk  may  be  used  when  the  butter  made  was  of  particu- 
larly good  quality,  especially  if  churnnig  every  day  or  every  other 
dav.  A skim  milk  or  home  made  starter  is  usuallv  more  desirable. 


I? 


A home  made  starter  is  prepared  as  follows : Keep  separate  the 

milk  from  one  cow,  preferably  one  that  has  not  been  in  milk  long, 
(the  factory  butter  maker  must  select  the  milk  of  some  patron  who 
takes  more  than  ordinaryily  good  care  of  his  milk)  ; run  it  through 
the  separator  or  set  in  a vessel  by  itself.  Fill  one  or  two  fruit  jars 
that  have  been  thoroughly  cleansed  and  scalded,  with  this  skim  milk ; 
place  these  in  a pail  or  other  convenient  vessel  of  water  at  a tem- 
perature of  90°.  In  cold  weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  warm  the 
water  up  once  or  twice  by  adding  hot  water  or  otherwise.  In  from 
18  to  24  hours,  the  milk  should  become  nicely  loppered,  like  a soft 
gelatin,  when  it  is  ready  to  use.  If  allowed  to  stand  until  the  curd 
becomes  firm,  it  will  cause  particles  of  curd  to  appear  in  the  but- 
ter. When  ready  for  use  it  should  have  a pleasant  acid  taste,  free 
from  objectionable  taints  and  flavors. 

In  preparing  a starter  of  this  kind  it  is  assumed  that  lactic  acid 
bacteria  have  gained  access  to  the  milk  in  sufficient  numbers  that 
by  holding  at  a favorable  temperature  for  their  development  they 
will  predominate  over  the  less  desirable  forms,  especially  those 
which  thrive  at  low  temperatures.  Experience  shows  this  to  be 
true. 

A skim  milk  starter  cannot  be  depended  on  always.  It  is  wise 
to  prepare  two  jars  and  use  the  best  one,  or  if  not  right,  neither 
should  be  used. 

Commercial  Starters. — Several  firms  are  putting  on  the  market 
pure  cultures  of  bacteria,  known  as  commercial  starters,  which  have 
been  found  to  give  very  satisfactory  results  in  the  creamery  where 
large  quantities  of  butter  are  made  and  even  a slightly  increased 
price  for  the  butter  will  more  than  pay  for  the  time  and  labor  re- 
quired for  preparing  starters.  Under  ordinary  conditions  about  10 
to  12  per  cent  of  starter  is  sufficient,  i.  e.,  one  quart  of  starter  to  two 
and  a half  gallons  of  cream.  If  the  cream  gets  ripe  too  quickly  use 
less  starter,  if  too  slowly  a little  more  next  time.  Rules  and  sug- 
gestions for  ripening  cream  are  but  helps.  Conditions  vary  so  from 
day  to  day  and  month  to  month  that  only  the  person  who  uses  judg- 
ment and  close  observation  can  be  sure  of  the  best  quality  of  butter 
from  day  to  day.  It  is  uniformity  of  quality  and  product  that  holds 
the  trade  and  commands  the  higher  price. 


THE  CHURN. 

The  Kind  of  churn  which  has  no  inside  fixture,  but  dashes 
the  cream  from  one  side  or  end  to  the  other  by  tlie  motion  of  the 
churn  has  proved  most  satisfactory. 


i8 


The  paddles,  dashers,  etc.,  of  whatever  pattern,  are  apt  to  hurt 
more  or  less  the  texture  of  the  butter;  also  cause  a loss  of  butter  in 
the  cream,  which  adheres  to  them  and  to  the  cornf^rs  of  the  churn, 
especially  when  the  cream  is  a little  thick. 

When  the  churning  is  done  in  such  a short  time  as  is  claimed 
by  admirers  of  many  so  called  improved  churns,  it  is  usually  at  a 
sacrifice  of  butter  fat  left  in  the  butter  milk,  even  though  it  may 
not  be  apparent  to  the  eye. 

Wooden  churns  are  to  be  preferred  to  metal ; because  of  their 
getting  loose  in  dry  weather  if  not  used  frequently  or  properly  taken 
care  of,  a steel  barrel  churn,  tinned  inside  and  painted  outside,  has 
been  put  on  the  market.  The  objections  to  it  are  that  the  cream 
warms  up  more  easily  when  the  room  is  warm  and  more  butter  will 
adhere  to  it  than  to  the  wood.  Care  must  be  exei'cised  to  wipe  it 
dry  or  it  will  rust.  On  the  other  hand  the  cream  might  be  kept  in 
it  till  enough  is  secured  for  a churning,  making  one  less  vessel  to 
care  for. 

The  Size  of  the  churn  should  be  such  that  it  wdl  never  be  filled 
over  half  full,  and  better  if  only  one  third  full.  Where  the  ordinary 
churning  amounts  to  from  two  to  five  gallons  of  cream  a fifteen 
gallon  churn  is  a desirable  size. 

The  Speed  of  a barrel  or  box  churn  which  revolves 
should  be  sufficient  to  carry  the  cream  to  the  highest  point  allowing 
it  to  fall  the  length  of  the  churn.  If  it  is  turned  too  fast  the  cream 
will  remain  in  the  ends ; if  too  slow  it  will  slip  around  and  churn 
slowly.  The  agitation  which  results  from  concussion  is  more  de- 
sirable than  that  from  friction. 

The  Time  required  for  churning  depends  on  the  ripeness  of 
the  cream,  the  temperature,  the  fullness  of  the  churn,  the  amount 
of  agitation  and  the  richness  of  the  cream,  and  to  a lesser  extent, 
period  of  lactation,  and  feed.  Quick  churning  usually  means  large 
loss  of  butter  in  the  butter  milk.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  20  to 
40  minutes  is.  a reasonable  length  of  time  for  churning  and  no  ob- 
jection to  an  hour  if  firm  butter  and  thorough  work  are  desired, 
especially  if  the  churning  is  done  with  other  than  hand  power. 

Temperature. — The  only  rule  which  can  be  given  is  “churn  at 
as  low  a temperature  as  posible  and  have  the  butter  come  in  a rea- 
sonable time.”  A high  temperature  makes  quick  churning,  large 
loss  of  butter  in  the  butter  milk  and  soft  butter ; a low  temperature 
requires  a longer  time,  makes  a firmer  butter  and  reduces  the  loss 
in  the  butter  milk.  While  most  cream  can  be  satisfactorily  churned 
in  20  to  40  minutes  at  some  temperature  between  50  and  60  degrees 
F.,  some  unusual  condition  may  require  a little  higher  telnperature 
or  longer  time.  In  the  Experiment  Station  dairy,  54°  to  56°  is  the 
usual  churning  temperature.  When  gluten  meal  or  feed  is  fed  the 


19 


churning  temperature  may  be  lowered  two  to  four  degrees,  while  if 
much  cottonseed  meal  is  fed  it  may  be  raised  a little  if  the  butter  is 
slow  in  coming. 

The  variations  in  the  churnability  of  cream  from  different  cows, 
and  herds,  from  the  same  cows  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
varying  stages  of  lactation  require  some  variation  in  the  churning 
temperature.  Use  a thermometer ; then  if  the  butter  comes  quick 
and  soft  lower  the  temperature  of  the  cream  next  time.  It  is  ver> 
desirable  that  the  cream  be  held  at  the  churning  temperature  for  at 
least  two  hours  previous  to  churning.  The  butter  will  be  firmer  if 
this  is  done.  No  objection  to  its  standing  longer  if  the  cream 
is  not  over  ripe. 

Difficult  Churning. — In  the  winter  when  the  cows  are  on  dry 
feed  and  have  been  milking  for  nearly  a year  or  more  and  give  only 
a small  amount  of  milk,  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  make  the  butter 
gather. 

Skim  as  thick  a cream  as  possible;  ripen  the  cream  as  de- 
scribed elsewhere  till  there  is  a pronounced  acid  flavor;  do  not  All 
a barrel  over  one  third  full  and  churn  at  a little  higher  temperature. 

Color. — If  selling  butter  to  the  general  market,  use  color  if 
necessary  to  make  the  butter  about  the  color  of  June  butter.  Foi 
private  trade,  color  or  not,  as  suits  the  customers.  The  standard 
butter  colors  are  harmless  and  tasteless  in  the  quantity  needed.  The 
amount  required  is  small  and  can  only  be  determined  by  trial.  As 
the  color  combines  only  with  the  fat,  a rich  cream  will  require  moic 
color  per  gallon  of  cream  than  a thin  cream.  The  color  should  be 
added  to  the  cream  just  before  starting  the  churning. 

Stopping. — Stop  the  churning  when  the  granules  of  butter  are 
about  the  size  of  wheat  grains,  float  freely,  standing  partly  out  of  the 
butter  milk  and  separate  readily  from  it. 

If  the  butter  comes  very  soft,  cold  water  may  be  added  when 
the  butter  begins  to  break.  When  the  granules  form  small  and 
refuse  to  “gather’'  and  separate  from  the  butter  milk,  a little  strong 
brine  made  by  dissolving  dairy  salt  in  cold  water  will  usually  help  the 
separation  of  the  butter  from  the  butter  milk.  A little  salt  may  be 
thrown  into  the  churning,  but  it  is  better  to  use  the  brine.  Of 
course  much  of  it  will  spoil  the  buttermilk  for  drinking  or  cooking. 

Straining. — In  drawing  the  butter  milk  from  the  churn  it  is 
well  to  strain  it  through  a cheese  cloth  or  hair  strainer,  which  will 
catch  the  crumbs  of  butter  that  may  otherwise  be  lost. 

Washing  Butter. — By  washing  the  butter  while  still  in  the 
churn  with  about  as  much  cold  water  as  there  was  butter  milk  or  a 
little  more,  the  buttermilk  may  be  very  thoroughly  removed. 

The  washing  removes  the  casein,  curd,  of  ilie  butter  milk. 


20 


The  casein  which  may  be  left  in  the  butter,  spoils  very  quickly, 
hence  it  is  desirable  to  have  as  little  of  it  in  the  butter  as  possible. 

A second  washing  may  be  required.  Excessive  washing  should 
be  avoided  as  it  may  injure  the  flavor  of  the  butter.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  wash  water  should  be  a little,  three  or  four  degrees,  be- 
low the  churning  temperature.  If  wash  water  is  very  cold,  the 
outside  of  the  butter  granules  are  hardened  while  the  inside  re- 
mains soft,  so  that  when  salt  is  added  it  will  not  be  evenly  mixed 
through  the  hard  and  soft  butter  by  the  working.  This  uneven  dis- 
tribution of  salt  will  cause  mottled  or  streaked  color  in  the  flnished 
butter. 

Salting — Only  the  best  grades  of  dairy  salt  should  be  used  for 
butter.  It  may  be  added  as  a brine  after  washing  the  butter.  This 
method  wastes  a good  deal  of  salt  and  is  only  desirable  where  a very 
mildly  salted  butter  is  wanted. 

The  salt  may  be  sprinkled  on  the  butter  while  it  is  yet  in  the 
churn,  then  revolve  the  churn  a few  times  till  the  butter  is  partailiy 
gathered,  and  allow  it  to  stand  if  convenient,  for  an  hour  or  two,  so 
the  salt  may  become  thoroughly  dissolved,  and  finish  working  either 
bv  revolving  in  the  churn  or  taking  it  out. 

The  butter  may  be  removed  from  the  churn  while  in  the  gran- 
ular form;  spread  on  the  worker,  and  the  salt  sprinkled  over  it. 
Work  a little  to  incorporate  the  salt  and  possibly  allow  it  to  stand 
a little  while  till  the  salt  dissolves ; then  finish  the  working. 

The  amount  of  salt  used  must  be  determined  by  the  demands 
of  the  market.  For  the  general  market  one  ounce  of  salt  for  each 
pound  of  unworked  butter  is  about  right.  The  main  tiling  is  to  learn 
what  the  market  wants  and  then  adopt  a method  which  will  give 
uniform  results.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  weigh  butter  and  salt, 
use  a small  measure  of  salt  for  a certain  number  of  gallons  of  cream. 
For  hand  separator  cream  this  method  will  give  quite  uniform 
results. 

Working. — The  butter  is  worked  to  expel  the  surplus  moisture, 
to  incorporate  the  salt  and  to  give  the  butter  a compact  body.  Over- 
working injures  the  texture  and  makes  the  butter  appear  greasy. 
\\’hen  possible,  it  is  desirable  to  work  the  butter  a little  and  then  al- 
low it  to  stand  for  a couple  of  hours  or  until  next  day ; then  finish. 
If  there  is  not  a suitable  place  to  keep  the  butter  in  between  work- 
ings, it  is  better  to  finish  it  right  up.  The  working  should  be  stopped 
when  the  butter  breaks,  with  a slight  tendency  to  hold  together  or 
string  out  in  short  pin  points.  As  soon  as  it  passes  the  stage  where 
it  breaks  with  a clean  break,  stop  working.  More  butter  is  in- 
jured by  overworking  than  by  insufficient  working. 

Package. — The  package  should  suit  the  market.  Pound  prints 


21 


(standard  size  234x2^x4^  inches)  are  gaining  in  public  favor 
very  rapidly  and  are  a convenient  form  for  packing,  for  handling 
and  for  table  use.  Wrapped  in  first  class  parchment  paper  and 
placed  in  a manilla  wrapper,  called  cartons,  good  butter  will  com- 
mand a fair  price  and  in  most  markets,  a cent  or  more  above  that 
which  is  equally  good  packed  in  jars  or  irregular  packages. 

If  prints  are  to  be  packed  in  boxes  immediately  it  will  usually 
be  better  to  wrap  them  in  dry  paper,  while  if  they  are  to  be  handled 
or  allowed  to  stand,  the  paper  will  stay  in  shape  better  if  dipped  in 
cold  water  before  wrapping. 

Do  not  use  wax  paper  for  butter.  A strong  dairy  parchment 
paper  is  the  best  for  the  purpose. 

Marketing. — Private  customers  who  will  contract  for  a regular 
supply  at  a fixed  price  are  usually  the  highest  price  market  avail- 
able to  the  maker  of  first  class  dairy  butter,  as  the  express  charges, 
commission  etc.,  on  comparatively  small  lots  are  too  high  to  warrant 
shipping.  While  private  customers  pay  the  highest  price  for  good 
butter  regularly  supplied,  the  time  required  in  delivery  and  collec- 
tions is  considerable.  Frequently  a grocer  who  has  the  best  class 
of  trade  will  contract  for  all  of  the  butter  at  a fair  price.  Uniform 
quality  from  week  to  week  and  regularity  of  delivery  are  essential  if 
fancy  prices  are  secured. 


WEIGHING  AND  TESTING  MILK. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  which  may  be  done  to  in- 
crease the  profit  from  the  milch  cows  kept  on  the  farm  is  to  know 
accurately  how  much  milk  and  butter  they  are  producing  annually. 
Each  one  must  be  fed  a year  no  matter  whether  it  is  grain  or  pasture, 
and  she  should  produce  enough  over  and  above  cost  of  care  and  feed 
to  make  a reasonable  profit. 

While  it  may  pay  to  weigh  the  milk  of  each  cow  at  each  milk- 
ing, especially  with  pure  bred  dairy  cows,  it  is  often  impracticable 
to  do  this,  but  it  will  pay  every  farmer  to  weigh  the  milk  one  morn- 
ing and  one  night  each  month  throughout  the  year  and  multiply  this 
by  the  number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  use  this  as  a basis  for 
estimating  the  year’s  production.  Careful  experiments  show  that 
this  method  will  give  reasonably  close  results.  It  has  been  repeat- 
edly shown  that  even  the  person  who  is  milking  the  cows  cannot 
determine  the  relative  amount  of  milk  or  butter  produced  by  the 
several  cows  in  a herd  without  the  aid  of  the  scales  and  tester. 

When  the  milk  is  made  into  butter  or  sold  on  the  basis  of  the 
butter  fat,  a Babcock  test  should  be  u.sed  and  an  estimate  of  the 


22 


yearly  lat  production  secured.  This  may  be  done  as  follows : At  the 
milkings,  when  the  weighing  is  done,  have  a pint  fruit  jar  or  other 
convenient  vessel  for  each  cow  that  is  to  be  tested.  After  weighing 
the  milk,  pour  from  one  pail  to  another  at  least  twice.  The  first  milk 
drawn  from  the  cow  is  very  poor  in  butter  fat,  often  testing  as  low  as 
i-5%>  while  the  last  is  very  rich ; the  last  pint  or  two  may  test  as 
high  as  eight  or  nine  per  cent.  In  order  to  get  a fair  test  it  must 
be  thoroughly  mixed  as  described.  A sample  taken  during  the  milk- 
ing will  not  be  a fair  one.  After  thoroughly  mixing,  place  a little 
in  the  jar,  say  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls,  at  the  second  milking, 
add  about  as  much  more.  From  this  mixed  sample  the  small  amount 
required  for  testing  may  be  taken. 

Directions  for  operating  the  test  usually  accompany  the  ma- 
chine, only  some  suggestions  are  here  given  which  may  be  useful. 
Any  bright  boy  or  girl,  14  or  15  years  old,  can  learn  to  operate 
the  test  accurately  with  a little  practice. 

Mixing  Samples. — Samples  should  be  mixed  by  pouring  from 
one  vessel  to  another,  immediately  before  they  are  measured  with 
the  pipette.  Shaking  the  sample  will  some  times  churn  parts  of  the 
butter,  especially  if  the  sample  has  been  warmed  up.  Pouring  is  the 
best  way. 

When  lumps  of  cream  are  not  broken  up  by  pouring  and  the 
milk  is  not  curdled,  it  will  often  help  matters  to  warm  the  sample 
by  placing  the  jar  of  milk  in  warm  water  a few  minutes. 

Composite  Samples  may  be  taken  when  it  is  desired  to  test  all 
of  the  milk  produced  in  a week  or  tw’o,  but  do  not  want  to  test  each 
milking  separately.  They  should  be  used  at  the  creamery  for  de- 
termining the  amount  of  fat  brought  by  each  patron.  Taken  as 
follows:  Into  a jar  which  has  a tight  cover,  put  a corrosive  sub- 

limate tablet,  or  small  quantity  of  bichromate  of  potasium,  and  each 
day  add  a small  amount  of  milk.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  new  milk  and  any  cream  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel  are 
thoroughly  mixed  by  rotating  rather  than  by  shaking  the  jar. 

At  the  end  of  the  desired  period  test  this  composite  sample  in 
the  usual  way,  with  the  pounds  milk  given  during  the  period  cov- 
ered by  the  sample,  and  the  per  cent,  of  fat  given  by  the  test,  the 
pounds  of  fat  produced  are  easily  determined. 

In  creamery  practice,  if  the  composite  sample  has  not  kept 
properly  it  can  often  be  dissolved  by  putting  a very  little  common 
lye  into  the  sample  when  ready  to  test,  and  allow  it  to  stand  a 
short  time,  shaking  it  occasionally. 

Test  not  Clear,  may  be  due  to  too  strong  acid,  in  which  case 
use  less  of  it,  or  allowing  the  milk  and  acid  to  stand  before  mixing. 
Particles  of  cork  in  the  acid  may  do  it.  If  acid  is  weak  there  will 


23 

be  a iighl  deposit  below  the  fat  column ; it  may  be  avoided  by 
using  m^ore  acid. 

Reading  should  be  done  from  the  lowest  part  of  the  bottom 
curve  of  the  fat  column  to  the  point  where  the  upper  curve  of  the 
fat  touches  the  glass.  A pair  of  dividers  may  be  used  in  reading. 
Spread  the  points  as  far  apart  as  the  length  of  the  fat  columns  ;theii 
place  the  lower  one  on  the  zero  mark,  and  the  upper  point  shows 
the  reading. 


The  following  causes  and  effects  are  met  with  in  the  dairy : 

SEPARATING. 


Effects. 


Large  loss 


Increased  flow  . . 

Insufficient  speed 

Small  cream  exit 
Increased  speed 
Reduced  inflow  . . 

Uniform  speed  . 

Sufficient  speed  /■  Small  loss 

Proper  temperature  ) 


Thick  cream 


Thin  cream 


Causes. 

Irregular  inflow  . . 
Vibration  of  bowl 
Irregular  speed  . . . 
Cold  milk  


Sour  milk  

Too  rich  cream  

Cold  milk  

Skims  cleanest  

Smallest  bowl  

Slowest  speed  

Fewest  parts  

Skim  at  lowest  temperature 

Best  workmanship  

Easiest  adjusted  

Lightest  running  

Easiest  cleaned  


Clogging 


'Best  separator 


j 


24 


CHURNING. 

Causes. 

Effects. 

Gluten  feeds  

Oil  meal  

High  temperature  

\ 

Cream  of  unequal  ripeness.. 

"j 

High  temperature  

Thin  nrpam  

Large  loss  in  the  butter  milk 

Sweet  cream  

Ix)w  temperature  '| 

Ripe  cream  

Evenly  ripe  j 

Rich  cream  


Small  loss 


Low  temperature  

Very  thin  cream  

Very  thick  cream 

Sweet  cream  

Churn  too  full  

Slow  agitation  

Cream  from  stripper  cows.  . 
Cream  of  unequal  ripeness.. 

Cream  exposed  to  odors  

Over  ripe  cream  

Decaying  feed  

Moldy  feed  

Impure  drinking  water  

Stable  odors  

Sick  cows  

Over  ripe  cream  

Dried  cream  

Foreign  matter  

Uneven  temperature  

Uneven  salting  

Insufficient  working  

Sudden  chilling  

Change  of  temperature  

Over  working  

Over  heating  

Over  churning  * 

Slipping  of  tools  in  working 

Thin  cream  

Sweet  cream  

Churn  too  full  

Cold  cream  

Advanced  period  of  lactation 


1 


I 

J 

1 

1- 

I 

I 

1 

I 

! 

i" 

I 

j 


Slow  churning 


Impaired  flavor 


Specks  in  butter 


Mottles  and  streaks 


Texture  injured 


Difficult  churning 


25 


Causes. 


Effects. 


Succulent  feeds  . 
Summer  feeds  . . 

Cotton  seed  meal 

Bran  

Legumes  


. Higher 

colored 

butter 

colored 

butter 

. Hard 

butter 

butter 

* TESTING. 

Too  warm  milk  ) 

Too  strong  acid  I"  Chars  fat 

Insufficient  mixing  ) 

Foreign  matter  \ Dark  sediment 


Cold  milk 
Cold  acid 
Weak  acid 


( White  fat 

( White  sediment  and  light  colored  fat. 


Insufficient  speed  (tester) 

Too  cold  

Delay  in  reading  

Broken  pipette  

Too  hot  

Unclean  bottle  

Unclean  pipette  


!- 

J 


Low  reading 


High  reading 


Sample  by  weight  . Cream 

More  acid  'I 

Higher  speed  j For  Skim  Milk 

More  heat  ] For  Butter  Milk 

Double  neck  bottle  J 

Maintains  uniform  temperature  ] 

Maintains  uniform  speed  j 

Easiest  controlled  j 

Breaks  fewest  bottles  Best  tester 

Does  not  tremble  

Easiest  balanced  

Has  top  and  bottom  bearing 


) 


26 


MISCELLANEOUS  DATA. 

Temperatures : 


Milk  when  drawn  98° 

for  shallow  setting 60° 

deep  setting  40°  to  45° 

seperating  85°  to  95° 

ripening  cream  65°  to  75° 

Churning 50°  to  60° 

Milk  for  city  delivery 45°  to  50° 

Milk  for  calf  feeding 95°  to  100° 

Reading  test  bottles  120°  to  140° 

Skim  milk  starter  set  at 90° 


Keep  above  75° ; if  necessary  warm  up  after  6 to  10  hours. 


Time : 

For  cream  to  rise 

in  shallow  pans  24  to  36  hours 

in  deep  setting  12  to  24  hours 

cream  to  ripen  18  to  24  hours 

churning  ripe  cream 20  to  40  minutes 

First  whirling  of  test  bottles 5 minutes 

at  full  speed 

Second  and  third  whirling  of  test  bottles i to  2 minutes 

Per  cent,  of  fat. 

Average  milk  3*7% 

Guernsey  5-0% 

Jersey  5-0% 

Shorthorn 4-i% 

Ayshire  3-7% 

Holstein  3-0% 

First  milk  drawn 0.8  to  2% 

Last  milk  drawn  5.0  to  12% 

Rich  cream  : .35.0  to  50% 

Commercial  cream 20.0  to  25% 

Butter  83.0  to  88% 

Loss  of  fat  should  not  be  over 

In  dilution  skim  milk  7 to  i.% 

Shallow  pan  skim  milk  5 to  .7  % 

Deep  setting  skim  milk  2 to  .5  % 

Separator  skim  milk  03  to. 05  % 

Butter  milk i to  .2  % 


27 


FERTILIZING  MATERIAL  REMOVED  IN  FARM 

PRODUCTS. 


The  following  figures  are  presented  to  emphasize  the  reason 
why  it  is  desirabble  to  feed  on  the  farm  the  crops  that  are  grown 
upon  it,  and  sell  only  live  stock  and  dairy  products,  thus  removing 
from  the  farm  the  rnininr.mi  amount  of  valuable  fertilizer  elements 
and  eventually  returning  to  the  land  the  major  portion  of  the 
manure,  sohl  and  liquid,  if  properly  take  care  of. 

The  purchase  concentrated  feeds,  bran,  linseed,  cottonseed 
and  gluten  meals,  brings  onto  the  farm  from  $10.00  to  $12. .jo 
worth  vU'  these  same  valuable  elements  per  ton  of  feed,  abr.  ut 
three-fouTths  of  which  goes  into  the  manure. 

An  understanding  of  these  facts  suggests  wliv  rlairying  is  one 
of  the  surest  and  quickest  means  of  building  up  and  maintaining 
the  soils  which  have  been  depleted  by  continuous  cropping. 

To  estimate  the  value  of  commercial  fertilizers,  the  State  Chem- 
ist values  nitrogen  at  15c  per  lb.,  phosphoric  acid  3l^c.,  and  potash 
6c.  per  lb.  These  prices  with  tabic  III  in  “Feeds  and  Feeding”  as 
a basis  for  the  fertilizer  elements  in  the  common  farm  products 
show  that  $100  worth  of  the  various  farm  products  will  contain 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  worth  as  follows : 


Value  of  fertilizing  ma 


Product.. 

Market  price. 

terial  in  $100  worth 
of  products. 

Roughness 

Oat  straw 

M 

$3,50  per 

ton 

$99,65 

Corn  stover’ 

at  * 

4.00  per 

ton 

9747 

Wheat  stravv 

at 

3.00  per 

ton 

82.20 

Ti-iSiothy  hay 

at 

8.00  per 

ton 

65-39 

Grains 

Corn 

at 

•35  per 

bu. 

64.30 

Oats 

at 

.20  per 

bu. 

59-98 

Wheat 

at 

.60  per 

bu. 

41.16 

Barley 

at 

.40  per 

bu. 

33-95 

Live  Stock 

Sheep 

at 

3.00  per  100  lb. 

11.44 

Cattle 

at 

4.00  per  100  lb. 

10.41 

-unwashed 


at 

at 


Wool 
^ Hogs 

Dairy  Products 
Milk 
Cheese 
Cl  earn 
Butter 

If  tlie  market  price  is  hi 
less  of  the  jiroduct  to  make  $ 
of  fertility  will  be  less  in  each 
the  loss  will  be  greater. 


.20  per  lb. 
4.50  per  100  lb. 


at 

at 

at 

at 


6.69 

6.59 


.90  per  100  lb.  10.72 

.10  per  lb.  6.82 

.48  per  gallon  i .05 

.20  per  lb.  .Ti 

gher  than  given  above  it  will  take 
100.00  worth,  consequently  the  loss 
$100.00  worth.  If  prices  are  lower 


28 


GENERAL  INFORMATION. 

The  following  helps  are  available  for  the  person  who  wants 
to  learn  more  about  the  production,  care  and  handling  of  cows 
and  dairy  products : 


Books. 


Most  any  Agricultural  paper  will  send  the  following  on  re- 
ceipt of  price : 

Milk  and  Its  Products,  Wing $i.oo 

Outlines  of  Dairy  Bacteriology,  Russel i.oo 

Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products,  Farrington  and  Woll i.oo 

Creamery  Patrons  Handbook  i.oo 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry 2.00 

Feeding  Farm  Animals,  Jordan 1.50 

Dairy  Papers. 

Hoard’s  Dairyman,  Ft.  Atkinson,  Wis.,  Weekly $1.00 

Dairy  and  Creamery,  Chicago,  Semi-Monthly 50 

Kimball's  Dairy  Farmer,  Waterloo,  Iowa,  Semi-Monthly...  i.oo 

Creamery  Papers. 

Chicago  Dairy  Produce,  Chicago,  111.,  Weekly 1.50 

New  York  Produce  Review,  New  York,  Weekly i.oo 

Creamery  Journal,  Waterloo,  Iowa,  Monthly i.oo 


Institutions. 

Purdue  University,  School  of  Agriculture,  LaFayette,  Ind. 
Four  years’  course  in  Agriculture. 

Ten  weeks’  course  in  Farm  Dairying. 

Ten  weeks’  course  in  Creamery  Butter  Making. 

Ten  days’  course  in  Commercial  Starters  and  Cream  ripening. 
Purdue  University,  Experiment  Station,  LaFayette,  Ind. 
Conducts  experiments. 

Publishes  bulletins  and  reports.  Sent  free  for  the  asking. 
Answers  inquiries  on  agricultural  topics. 

Indiana  State  Dairy  Association,  LaFayette,  Ind. 

Organized  by  dairymen  and  creamerymen  to  promote  the 
dairy  interests  of  the  stale. 


29 


Holds  annual  convention  at  which  instructive  papers  are  de- 
livered, followed  by  full  discussion. 

Publishes  report  of  convention  containing  all  papers  and  dis- 
cussions. 

Holds  butter  and  cheese  exhibition  in  connection  with  annual 
convention. 

Membership  open  to  any  one  interested  on  payment  of  one 
dollar.  Secretary-Treasurer,  H.  E.  Van  Norman,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
State  Fair,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Sept.  14-18.,  1903. 

Dairy  breeds  of  cattle  on  exhibition. 

Exhibits  of  butter  and  cheese  on  which  premiums  are  award- 
ed. 

Displays  of  newest  machinery  and  apparatus. 

Working  dairy  display — butter  made  each  day. 

A good  place  to  get  new  ideas. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  CUTS. 

Cut  3 — A useful  strainer  which  can  be  made  by  any  tinner. 
Diameter  of  top  10  inches,  of  bottom  5 inches,  total  height  7 inches. 
The  rings  are  slipped  on  after  the  cheese  cloth  is  in  place,  and  are 
removed  for  washing.  The  left  figure  shows  the  strainer  complete, 
the  other  with  the  cloth  removed  for  washing.  There  is  no  wire 
strainer  in  it,  only  cloth  top  and  bottom.  The  top  cloth  should  be 
large  and  sag  down  to  prevent  spilling  when  pouring  into  it.  New 
cheese  cloth  should  be  secured  occasionally.  After  using  the 
cloth  should  be  rinsed  in  cold  water,  washed  clean  in  warm  water, 
scalded  and  hung  in  the  sunshine. 

Cut  4 — A swing  churn — a barrel  churn  and  a lever  butter 
worker.  Either  churn  is  very  satisfactory,  will  do  thorough  work 
in  a reasonable  length  of  time,  if  not  filled  too  full  and  the  cream 
is  right.  More  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  cream  than  on  the 
churn.  A butter  worker  is  a great  labor  saver  for  the  farm  butter 
maker,  and  is  less  apt  to  injure  the  texture  than  working  in  a bowl 
with  a ladle. 

Cut  5 — Butter  wrapped  in  parchment  paper  after  being  print- 
ed with  a printer  like  the  one  in  the  left  center.  The  printer  may  be 
carved  so  as  to  show  a figure  or  initials  on  the  butter.  At  the  right 
is  shown  a cheap  printer.  In  the  right  center  a Gem  paper  package 
into  which  butter  may  be  packed  as  into  a jar.  At  the  extreme 
left  are  a closed  and  an  open  butter  carton,  made  of  a special  para- 
fined  card  board  for  wrapping  prints  in. 


30 


Cut  6. — Two  s^vles  of  Babcock  testers,  with  glasswaie  com- 
plete ; also  two  small  balances  for  weighing  cream  when  testing. 

In  front  of  the  tray  in  which  the  bottles  are  resting  is  a com- 
mon tin  cup  with  a small  spout  for  filling  the  bottles  with  hot 
water. 

Cut  7 — Shows  the  different  bottles  used  in  testing  skim  milk 
and  cream.  The  left  hand  bottle  is  a “doubble  neck  skim  milk 
bottle.''  The  graduations  on  the  small  neck  represent  five  one- 
hundredths  of  one  per  cent.  (.05%)  of  butter  fat.  The  bottle 
shown  contained  only  one  space  of  fat. 

The  second,  third  and  fourth  bottles  are  whole  milk  bottles, 
the  graduations  being  o to  10  per  cent.,  subdivided  into  two-tenths 
spaces.  The  third  bottle  shows  a fat  column  extending  from  3.4 
to  9.2  or  5.8  per  cent,  of  fat,  while  the  fourth  shows  3.7  to  7.7  01 
four  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  right  hand  two  are  cream  bottles,  grad- 
uated in  per  cent.,  subdivided  into  half  per  cent.,  the  first  showing 
a fat  column,  extending  from  3.5  to  25.  or  21.5  per  cent,  of  f^it. 
while  the  last  shows  very  indistinctly  19  per  cent. 

Chart  eight  shows  the  variation  in  the  amount  of  milk,  the 
per  cent,  and  the  pounds  of  fat  from  day  to  day,  for  two  cows 
in  the  college  herd,  during  the  first  four  weeks  in  May,  1903. 

Some  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  it  are : 

ISL — That  there  are  great  variations  not  only  in  the  amount 
of  milk  given  and  the  amount  of  fat  contained  in  it  in,  one  day, 
but  in  the  proportion,  or  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  milk.  ‘ For  in- 
stance, (see  “Purdue’s  Primrose”)  on  the  i8th  there  was  a marked 
falling  off  in  yield  of  milk  from  nearly  16  to  less  than  14  pounds, 
while  the  per  cent,  of  fat  and  the  actual  amount  of  fat  increased. 
On  the  22nd,  the  reverse  was  true,  the  milk  going  up  and  the  test 
and  the  amount  of  fat  for  the  day  falling  off.  On  the  8th  there 
was  an  increase  in  all  three,  while  on  the  17th  there  was  a de- 
crease. 

2nd — That  there  is  a very  noticeable  difference  in  the  amount 
of  variation  with  different  cows,  even  though  kept  under  similar 
conditions.  A comparison  of  the  line  used  to  indicate  the  yields 
and  per  cents,  for  the  two  cows  will  show  this.  “Purdue’s  Prim- 
rose” has  for  several  years  shown  marked  variations  from  day  to 
day  and  milking  to  milking,  while  “Purdue’s  Golden  Primrose’s 
record  is  very  much  more  uniform  from  day  to  day. 

3rd — The  most  marked  changes  did  not  occur  on  the  same 
day,  as  a rule,  with  both  cows,  suggesting  that  the  causes  were  in- 
dividual. However,  the  evidence  submitted  here  is  meant  to  be 
suggestive  rather  than  conclusive,  as  an  argument  for  more  rec- 
ords and  accurate  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  owner  of  what  his 
cows  are  actually  doing,  and  suggesting  why  it  is  necessary  to  test 
frequently  and  regularly  if  accurate  information  is  desired. 


31 


No.  3 


32 


No.  4. 


33 


No.  5, 


34 


No.  6. 


35 


No.  7. 


Purdue  University 

Ag  ricultural Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  97/ VOL.  XII. 
OCTOBER,  1903. 


On  the  Value  of  Distillery  Dried  Grains 
As  a Food  for  WorR  Horses. 


Published  by  the  Station: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA. 
U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


William  V.  Stuart,  President LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

William  A.  Banks LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 

Sylvester  Johnson Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Beam Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing Greenfield,  Hancock  Co- 

Charles  B.  Stemen Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Major Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Winthrop  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  . . .President  of  the  University 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C Director  and  Chemist 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S Agriculturist 

James  Troop,  M.  S. Horticulturist  and  Entomologist 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc Botanist 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D Veterinarian 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S Dairyman- 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C. Assistant  Chemist 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S Assistant  Agriculturist 

R.  M.  Hamer Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy Clerk  and  Librarian. 


On  the  Value  of  Distillery  Dried  Grains  as  a 
Food  for  Work  Horses. 


BY  C.  S.  PLUMB.* 


In  a very  general  way,  the  grain  foods  fed  horses  in  the 
Eastern  and  Central  Western  States  consist  of  oats  or  corn  and 
oats.  To  be  sure  bran  mashes  or  dry  bran  are  often  used,  but 
these  are  fed  usually  as  correctives,  to  promote  an  active  condi- 
tion of  the  digestive  organs.  The  value  of  oats  as  a feed  for 
horses  has  long  been  recognized.  They  not  only  contain  a 
fairly  large  per  cent  of  protein  or  muscle  making  food,  but  they 
are  generally  recognized  as  possessing  a characteristic  which 
promotes  energy  and  vivacity  in  the  horse  as  in  no  other  farm 
animal.  A study  of  the  rations  fed  horses  in  the  large  stables, 
both  of  America  and  Europe,  where  thousands  of  animals  are 
concerned,  will  show  oats  more  frequently  in  evidence  than  any 
other  grain.  Corn  is  an  extremely  palatable  grain  for  all  farm 
animals,  but  its  greatest  value  lies  in  its  fattening  quality.  It 
is  the  principal  grain  made  use  of  by  men  who  make  a special 
business  in  fattening  draft  horses  to  be  sold  on  the  market.  In 
the  leading  horse  markets  of  the  Middle  West,  weight  counts 
much  in  selling  value,  and  nothing  will  produce  this  better  than 
corn.  In  these  markets  it  is  considered  that  each  additional 
pound  of  live  weight  laid  on,  is  worth  25  cents  in  selling  on  the 
draft  horse  market.  Corn  fed  animals  are  smoother  than  oat  fed 
ones,  but  they  are  also  softer  in  flesh  and  lack  the  staying 
qualities  required,  where  corn  only  is  used. 

In  a consideration  of  a wider  range  of  concentrated  feed 
stuffs  for  the  horse,  the  writer’s  attention  was  directed  to  the 
use  of  distillery  dried  grains  as  a source  of  feeding  material  of 
high  muscle  making  power,  these  containing  25  or  more  per 
cent,  of  digestible  protein.  In  the  past  it  has  served  as  an  ex- 

*Uirector  of  this  Agricultural  Experiment  station  until  .July  1,  1903,  wden  he 
resigned  to  accept  another  situation  elsewhere. 


-38- 


ample,  also,  of  a food  rich  in  protein  selling  at  a low  price  on  the 
market.  Ihis  was  due  mainly  to  tlie  slight  extent  to  which  it 
was  known  by  the  purchasing  public. 

In  the  report  on  the  following  feeding  experiments  with 
horses,  Mr.  H.  E.  Van  Norman,  who  was  in  1900  Farm  Super- 
intendent and  Station  Assistant,  personally  attended  tlie  feed- 
ing of  the  mares  that  year,  while  in  1902  Mr.  R.  C.  Obrecht, 
Farm  Superintendent  and  Assistant,  gave  similar  attention  to 
the  feeding.  These  gentlemen  gave  careful  attention  to  the 
feeding,  and  made  numerous  notes  from  time  to  time  on  the 
relationship  of  the  food  to  appetite,  digestion,  animal  condition 
and  work. 

In  the  year  1900  a quantity  of  what  are  known  as  “Biles 
P'ourex”  distillery  dried  grains  with  a guaranteed  manufacturers 
33  per  cent,  protein,  were  secured  by  this  Station.  They  were 
rather  strong  in  flavor,  and  when  offered  to  cattle  were  not 
generally  relished  by  them.  In  order  to  note  their  suitability 
and  economy  as  a food  for  horses,  four  medium  weight  mares 
on  the  Station  farm  were  placed  in  a feeding  experiment,  with 
these  grains  as  a part  of  the  ration.  There  were  two  teams,  and 
in  making  up  the  lots  for  feeding,  two  mares  in  one  team  re- 
ceived dried  grains  and  the  other  team  did  not.  After  feeding 
Polly  and  Maud  dried  grains  four  weeks,  the  feeding  was  revers- 
ed, and  Clara  and  Topsy  were  given  oats  and  distillery  grains, 
and  Polly  and  Maud  fed  oats.  During  the  last  three  weeks  of  the 
experiment  the  grains  were  again  fed  Polly  and  Maud,  and 
only  oats  fed  Clara  and  Topsy.  This  experiment  continued  from 
June  27  to  Sept.  12,  and  involved  the  usual  run  of  farm  work, 
including  haying,  harvesting,  cultivating  corn,  plowing  and 
fltting  wheat  land  and  doing  miscellaneous  work.  The  mares 
were  weighed  from  week’  to  week,  and  a careful  record  was 
kept  of  the  amount  of  food  fed  at  each  feeding  time  to  each 
horse,  with  notes  as  to  the  effect  of  the  distillery  grains  on  the 
appetite,  on  the  digestion,  on  bodily  condition  and  on  capacity 
to  work. 

Table  I shows  the  amount  of  food  of  each  kind  that  was  fed 
each  horse  per  week  during  the  experiment. 


—39— 


It  will  be  noticed  that  this  table  shows  a great  difference 
in  the  amount  of  distillery  grains  eaten  by  each  mare.  Polly 
and  Maud  never  ate  their  grain  with  relish  so  long  as  the  dis- 
tillery grains  formed  a part  of  it.  On  several  days  they  would 
eat  none  at  all.  Polly  had  more  of  an  aversion  for  it  than 
Maud,  especially  when  its  use  was  commenced.  Clara  and 
Topsy  however,  ate  it  with  more  freedom  and  less  aversion, 
eating  it  in  fairly  large  amounts.  Neither  Polly  nor  Maud  ate 

TABLE  I. 


Total  Feed  Eaten  Per  Horse  Per  Week, — Lbs. 


DATE 

POLEV 

MAUD 

CLARA 

tdfsy 

- 

- 

X 

o a 

X 

' O 

C 

0 

D 

X 

C cn 

P 

1 ^ 

Q m 

<52  1 

p 

Q w' 

p 

IfiOU 

Cl 

m --l  !2. 

: C 

M rr 

' w 

3 lit 
p X 

• ? ^ 

1 : 

; 

£3  <T) 

June  27-July  4 

60. 

2.51 

89. 

61.  7.73 

84. 

89.75 

89. 

91. 

89. 

Jul3'4*ll 

80  5 

4.87 

96. 

80.  7.06 

84.  1 

93. 

' 86. 

90. 

Jul>'  11-18 ; 

84 

9.15 

92 . 88 

84.  8.06 

88..56j 

84! 

93. 

84. 

92  87 

July  18-25.. 

102 

9.06 

102. 

84.  9.87 

92.25 

84. 

95. 

84. 

95. 

July  25-Aug.  1. 

105. 

100. 

84. 

98. 

84. 

■i2!r)' 

93. 

- 84. 

i2!.5 

98. 

Aug.  1-8  . 

105. 

104. 

84 

90.75 

59.25 

24.25 

'.9. 

: .58.75 

24.75 

91.75 

Aa„.  8-15 

105. 

104. 

84 

87.  ! 

52.5 

42 

91. 

' 52  5 

44.87 

89. 

Aag.  15-22 

100. 

112. 

84. 

96.  I 

.52.5 

42. 

96. 

50. 

.50. 

91. 

Aug  22-29.. 

94  5 

.5.75 

108. 

78.5  6.25 

98. 

! 84. 

108. 

84. 

93. 

Aug.  29-Sept  0 

105. 

6.5 

101. 

84.  7.25 

91.5 

;io4. 

101. 

84. 

90. 

Sept  5-11 

95. 

4.75 

80. 

76.  4.75 

79.5 

95. 

92.5 

76. 

75. 

Total 

1086 

42.09 

1088.88 

878.5  .50  97 

979.56 

876. 

120.75 

1045., 5 

834.25 

132.12 

989.12 

Average  .. 

94  4 

98  58 

79.86  ..  . 

89.05; 

79.68 

95.04' 

75.84 

89.91 

Average  | 

6.01 

7.28 

30.18 

;83.03 



^ 







- 

a full  ten  pounds  in  a week,  while  Clara  ate  as  high  as  42  pounds 
and  Topsy  up  to  50  pounds.  With  each  mare  however,  it  was 
necessary  to  teach  them  to  eat  the  grains,  adding  them  in  in- 
creasing amounts  to  their  oats,  as  they  would  consume  them. 

One  is  naturally  interested  in  learning  the  influence  of  this 
food  on  live  weight  during  the  continuance  of  the  experiment, 
'fable  II  gives  the  weight  of  each  mare  from  week  to  week. 
The  dark  figured  type  is  for  the  weeks  the  mares  received  the 
distillery  dried  grains. 


—40- 


TABLE  II. 

Weights  of  Mares. 


LOT  I 

LOT  II 

DATE 

Distillery  G rains  and  Oats 

Oats  Only 

1900 

POLLY 

MAUD 

CLARA 

TOPSY 

June  27 

1217  lbs. 

1096  lbs. 

1258  lbs. 

1095  lbs. 

July  4 

1150  lbs. 

1164  lbs. 

1239  lbs. 

1054  lbs. 

July  11 

1162  lbs. 

1155  lbs. 

1236  lbs. 

1050  lbs. 

July  18 

1146  lbs. 

1182  lbs. 

1248  lbs. 

1050  lbs. 

July  25 

1183  IbS. 

1183  lbs. 

1245  lbs. 

1060  lbs. 

Aug.  1 

1184  lbs. 

1185  lbs. 

1246  lbs. 

1075  lbs. 

Aug.  8 

1154  lbs. 

1173  lbs. 

1230  lbs. 

1045  lbs. 

Aug.  15 

1175  lbs. 

1142  lbs. 

1200  lbs. 

1027  lbs. 

Aug.  22 

1183  lbs. 

1143  lbs. 

1230  lbs. 

1065  lbs. 

Aug.  29 

1168  lbs. 

1121  lbs.  1 

1228  lbs. 

1055  lbs. 

Sept.  5 

1202  lbs. 

1133  lbs. 

1236  lbs. 

1040  lbs. 

Sept.  12 

1175  lbs. 

1122  lbs. 

1240  lbs. 

1015  lbs. 

This  table  would  on  reasonable  examination  impress  one 
witli  the  fact  that  feed  played  but  little  part  in  weight  variations. 
In  fact  there  are  no  variations  which  show  great  losses  in  weight, 
for  some  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  influence  of  contents 
of  stomach  and  intestines  on  weekly  variations  in  weight.  As  a 
matter  of  comparison,  however,  the  following  table  has  been 
prepared,  which  shows  the  average  weight  of  each  mare  for  the 
periods  fed  distillery  grains  and  for  those  where  only  oats  were 
fed. 

TABLE  III. 


Average  Weights  of  Mares  When  Fed. 


Distillery  dried  grains.  Oats  only. 


Polly  1169.4  lbs.  1174.  lbs. 

Maud  1151.4  lbs.  1160.7  lbs.‘ 

Clara  1226.5  lbs.  1238.8  lbs. 

Topsy  1053.  lbs.  1046.2  lbs. 


In  this  table,  each  mare  shows  a slightly  greater  average 
weight  during  oat  feeding  than  when  distillery  grains  were  used, 
excepting  Polly,  which  weighed  an  average  of  6.8  lbs.  more 
while  fed  the  grains.  * 

In  1902,  when  feeding  materials  were  especially  high  in 
price,  another  experiment  was  inaugurated  to  see  if  the  dried 


—41— 


distillery  grains  could  not  be  used  satisfactorily  in  the  feeding 
rations  of  horses. 

As  in  the  1900  experiment,  four  mares  were  used,  of  which 
tw’O,  Topsy  and  Polly  were  in  the  former  test.  Belle  and  Fancy 
were  five-year  old  high  grade  Clydesdale  mares,  while  Topsy 
and  Polly  were  of  unknown  breeding,  and  of  common  farm 
type.  Differing  from  the  preceding  experiment,  this  one  in- 
cluded shelled  corn  in  the  ration.  It  began  on  March  21  and 
continued  to  May  6,  thus  including  some  of  the  harder  plowing 
work  of  the  year,  and  involved  much  labor  in  fitting  land  for 
summer  crops. 

Table  IV  which  follows,  shows  the  amount  in  pounds  of 
corn,  oats,  distillery  grains  and  hay  fed  each  mare  per  week. 


TABLE  IV. 

Foods  Fed  Mares  Per  Week  In  Pounds. 


LOT  I 

LOT  11 

1902 

TOPSY 

BELLE 

FANCY 

POLLY 

WEEK 

O 

o 

3 

O 

p 

w 

e 

O oo‘ 
C 
P_  S 

5'  rt 

CO 

. V! 

W 

p 

vj 

O 

o 

I-! 

3 

O 

p 

r-r 

W 

0 
O CO 

P S 

a'  n 

a 

p 

<<! 

O 

o 

a 

a 

O 

P 

w 

q 

O go' 
3 rl 

p a 

a 

p 

o' 

a 

3 

O 

P 

w 

0 
Q co' 
3 r: 
P — 

a’  o 

a 

p 

Mar.  21-Apr.  1 

Apr.  2-8 

Apr.  9-15 

Apr.  16-22 

Apr.  23-?9.  . 

Apr.  3't-  May  6 

.52.5 

.52.5 

.52.5 

52.5 

52 . 5 

69.5 

63. 

73.5 

45.5 
9. 
6.5 
15 

'29." 

63.75 

65.5 

46. 

96.5 

97. 

97.25 

98.25 
100. 
110. 

52.5 

52.5 

52.5 
.52.5 
.52.5 

69.5 

72. 

84. 

.53. 

15.5 

7. 

1 5 

29.5 

63. 

74. 

.52.5 

139.87 

125.5 

127.75 
134. 

139.75 
137.25 

50. 

52.5 

152.5 

152 . 5 
;.52. 

69.5 

49. 

52.5 

82.5 
84. 
84. 
.58.5 

18.5 

25.25 

1.30.5 

122.75 
124. 

1.32.75 
1.37.25 
136. 

.50.5 
52  5 
.52.5 
.52.5 
.52.5 
64.5 

49.5 
.52.5 

81.5 
84. 
82. 
47. 

7. 

6.75 

127.37 

125.75 

124.5 

126.25 

124.25 
128. 

Total 

332. 

199. 

204.25 

.599. 

332. 

233. 

219 

804.13 

i329 

410.5 

43,75 

783.25 

325. 

396.5 

13.75 

7.56.13 

Average  .. 

.55.3 

33.1 

99.8 

55.3 

38.8 

...  .131.02 

'54.8 

68.4 

130.5 

.54.1 

66. 

126. 

Average  ..  i 

.51.06 

.54.7  

21.87 

6.87 

This  table  shows,  as  in  the  previous  feeding  experiment, 
that  Polly  did  not  eat  distillery  dried  grains  at  all  well.  In  fact, 
until  April  4,  she  did  not  once  eat  all  that  were  fed  her  at  any 
one  feed.  For  the  first  week  she  averaged  just  a pound  a day, 
and  the  second  week  slightly  less.  Fancy  ate  with  better  appe- 
tite, but  neither  of  these  mares  did  at  all  well  on  this  feed.  On 
the  other  hand  Topsy  and  Belle  ate  the  grains  fairly  well  in 


—42  — 


greater  degree.  On  account  of  the  poor  manner  in  which  her 
grain  was  eaten,  with  falling  off  in  general  appearance,  it  was 
deemed  wise  to  discontinue  feeding  the  distillery  grains  to  Fancy 
and  Polly.  They  were  however,  fed  to  Topsy  and  Belle  for  four 
weeks,  with  fairly  satisfactory  results,  after  which  their  use  was 
discontinued. 

Table  V.  shows  the  weekly  weight  of  each. 


Weights  of  Mares — Pounds. 


LOT  I 

1 LOT  II 

DATE-1902 

Topsy 

Belle  j 

Fancy 

Polly 

March  25  

1210 

1 1325  1 

1345 

1355 

1345 

March  26  

1210 

1335 

1345 

March  27  

1195 

1340 

1350 

1340 

Average  for  March  26 

1205 

1333 

1350 

1343 

April  2 

1170 

1300 

1290 

1315 

April  9 

1170 

1295 

1280 

1310 

April  16  

1190 

1275 

1190 

1340 

April  23  

1180 

1245 

1295 

1345 

April  30  

1220 

1275 

1335 

1385 

May  7 

1210 

1235  I 

1290 

1340 

None  of  the  mares  fell  off  appreciably  in  weight  during  the 
experiment,  although  undoubtedly  Polly  would  have  had  the 
grains  been  continued  to  her.  Enough  other  food  was  given  to 
keep  the  animals  up  to  their  work,  and  at  no  time  would  they 
have  eaten  enough  of  the  dried  grains  to  have  demonstrated 
that  they  were  palatable  and  relished  by  them. 

Had  this  material  in  the  judgment  of  those  feeding  it,  seemed 
to  furnish  a satisfactory  addition  to  our  concentrates  for  horses, 
then  its  cost  would  be  an  important  factor  in  its  adoption  and 
use.  However,  inasmuch  as  two  years  experience  seemed  to 
demonstrate  that  it  was  lacking  in  palatability  as  a horse  food 
for  common  use,  to  which  the  teamsters  emphatically  agree,  it 
would  appear  useless  to  give  attention  to  the  cost  of  this  material 
as  a food  for  horses.  While  without  question  “Biles  Fourex” 
grains  possess  high  feeding  value,  as  based  on  chemical  analysis, 
our  feeding  simply  illustrates  the  special  importance  of  palata- 
bility as  a factor  in  the  adoption  of  food  stuffs  for  use  in  com- 
mon practice. 


Purdue  University 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  98.  Vol.  XII. 
February,  1904. 


Three  Edible  Toadstools. 


PiiDllslied  tiy  the  Station: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA. 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


William  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
William  A.  Banks,  - . _ _ LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 

Sylvlstlr  Johnson,  - - - - Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Belm,  . . . _ _ Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  _ - - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  _ - _ - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - ~ - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Major,  _ _ _ _ Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  President  of  the  University. 


Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  _ _ _ _ _ Botanist. 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Assistant  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  _ _ . Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  - - ' - - - - - Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  - _ _ _ _ Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Three  Edible  Toadstools 


BY  J.  C.  ARTHUR. 

The  use  of  mushrooms  as  an  article  of  diet  would  become 
common  among  all  classes  doubtless  were  it  not  for  the  fatal 
poison  that  lurks  in  some  of  the  species.  On  account  of  this  de- 
terrent fact  to  know  that  many  pounds  of  most  acceptable  and 
nutritious  food  is  annually  available  to  nearly  every  family,  except 
to  the  dwellers  in  crowded  parts  of  large  cities,  does  not  materially 
tend  toward  increased  consumption.  Even  to  know  that  not  more 
than  a half  dozen  kinds  are  dangerous,  out  of  the  hundreds  to  be 
found  in  almost  any  region,  inspires  slight  confidence.  No  one 
cares  to  take  the  one  chance  in  a hundred  of  losing  his  life  for  the 
sake  of  an  occasional  addition  to  the  daily  menu,  however  de- 
licious the  added  dish  may  be.  The  wiseacre  who  would  tell  the 
good  from  the  bad  by  the  action  of  a silver  spoon,  change  of  color 
upon  breaking,  ease  in  peeling,  pungency  of  taste,  or  some  other 
equally  simple  test,  is  wholly  discredited  now-a-days,  and  very 
properly  so.  The  person  who  divides  all  fleshy  fungi  into  mush- 
rooms, which  are  therefore  edible,  and  toadstools,  which  are  there- 
fore poisonous,  does  not  know  the  rudiments  of  the  subject  of 
mycophagy. 

To  begin  with,  there  is  no  difference  between  mushrooms 
and  toadstools.  The  names  are  applied  interchangeably  according 
to  personal  fancy,  or  local  custom.  There  appears  to  be  a tenden- 
cy in  most  usage,  however,  to  limit  the  term  toadstool  to  the  more 
fragile  and  highly  perishable  sorts,  and  I have,  consequently,  used 
the  word  in  the  title  of  this  bulletin,  as  I propose  to  describe  three 
closely  related  forms  that  last  but  a day,  usually  turning  to  ink 
before  the  sun  goes  down. 

Again,  there  is  no  convenient  test  by  which  to  tell  the  good 
from  the  bad,  except  the  test  of  individual  recognition.  If  one 
goes  to  the  fields  to  gather  berries,  he  must  know  which  are  blue- 
berries, raspberries,  etc.,  and  not  be  putting  into  his  basket  the 
deadly  nightshade,  and  other  poisonous  fruits,  however  attractive 
they  appear. 

In  the  days  of  reconstruction  after  the  civil  war  a common 
saying  was  that  the  way  to  resume  specie  payment  was  to  resume. 
And  so  one  may  say  that  the  way  to  learn  the  edible  fungi  is  to 
learn.  Become  perfectly  familiar  with  one  kind  at  a time  as  op- 
portunity favors,  either  through  the  assistance  of  books  and  jour- 
nal articles  or  by  the  help  of  trusted  friends.  Having  learned  the 
merits  of  one  kind,  let  all  other  sorts  alone  until  such  time  as  their 
status  for  culinary  use  can  be  positively  ascertained. 

There  are  some  classes  of  edible  fungi  that  are  very  easily 
identified.  They  are  so  unlike  any  poisonous  kinds  that  the  tyro 


46 


may  be  trusted  to  gather  them,  guided  only  by  printed  descrip- 
tions and  ordinary  illustrations.  Thus  the  honeycomb  mushroom, 
or  morel,  usually  designated  the  mushroom  throughout  Indiana, 
on  account  of  its  abundance  and  rather  common  use  by  all  classes 
of  persons,  is  very  distinctive ; and  so  are  the  puffballs,  large  and 
small,  none  of  which  are  poisonous.  A third  class  is  the  inky 
toadstools,  of  which  three  forms  are  large  and  abundant.  The 
superior  edible  qualities  of  these  last  are  not  well  known,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  the  following  descriptions  and  illustrations  will  enable 
nany  persons  to  make  use  of  this  nutritious  delicacy  who  are  now 
unaware  of  its  merits  or  availability. 

While  driving  one  day  last  autumn,  I stopped  at  the  curb  to 
talk  with  a village  friend,  and  the  conversation  turned  upon  mush- 
rooms. 

‘T  so  much  like  mushrooms,  as  does  all  the  family,”  said  my 
^ friend,  “but  I cannot  get  away  from  home  to  find  them,  and  even 
if  I could,  I would  not  know  where  to  look.” 

“But,”  I said,  “you  do  not  have  to  go  away  from  home  to  find 
them,  for  near  where  you  stand,  at  the  base  of  that  maple  tree, 
are  enough  for  one  good  meal ; or  at  least  would  have  served  for 
a meal  yesterday,  for  they  appear  rather  passe  now,”  and  I pointed 
to  a large  cluster  of  the  tan-colored  coprinus  not  ten  feet  away, 
growing  in  the  parking  about  the  base  of  a large  shade  tree. 

“Really,  I supposed  those  were  toadstools,”  came  the  reply  in 
much  surprise,  “I  never  should  have  thought  of  eating  them.” 

Of  course  they  were  toadstools,  but  a most  acceptable  variety. 
The  tan-colored  coprinus  {Coprinus  micaceus),  or  sparkling  co- 
prinus, as  the  Latin  name  indicates,  is  a very  common  fungus  in 
this  country,  as  it  is  also  in  Europe  (Plate  I,  B).  It  usually  grows 
in  dense  clusters  at  the  base  of  living  trees,  although  it  also  occurs 
in  small  open  groups,  and  sometimes  singly,  in  lawns  and  on  logs 
in  the  woods.  The  individual  plant  consists  of  a cylindrical  stem 
two  to  four  inches  long  when  fully  grown,  bearing  a half-expanded 
cap  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  stems  are  of'the  size  of  small 
pipestems,  hollow,  and  of  a dirty  white  or  brownish  color.  The 
cap  is  fragile.  At  first  the  gills  underneath  are  white  but  soon  be- 
gin to  blacken,  especially  at  the  edges,  and  finally  become  quite 
black.  When  less  than  half  grown,  the  upper  surface  is  sometimes 
covered  with  glistening  flakes,  but  this  is  by  no  means  invariable. 
Otherwise  the  surface  is  essentially  smooth,  and  of  a tan  color, 
varying  to  light  buff  or  yellowish  brown.  Fine  radial  lines  run 
from  near  the  center  to  the  margin  of  the  cap,  which  are,  however, 
easily  overlooked. 

They  usually  grow  in  masses  a foot  or  more  across ; and  the 
individuals,  which  are  of  all  sizes,  are  more  or  less  compressed  and 


47 


distorted,  particularly  the  smaller  ones.  Plate  I,  B,  gives  the  habit 
'of  the  fungus  very  well.  The  photograph  was  taken  from  a por- 
tion of  a large  mass,  and  shows  how  tightly  the  stems  were  pressed 
together  at  the  base.  Plate  4 shows  a tea-plate  of  the  tan-colored 
coprinus  ready  to  cook,  one-half  natural  size. 

In  dry  weather  the  cap  shrivels  and  dries  in  the  midday  sun. 
But  when  the  weather  is  damp,  the  upper  surface  becomes  moist 
and  a little  mucilaginous,  while  the  whole  cap  gradually  dissolves 
into  an  ink,  beginning  at  the  edges,  and  drips  away  until  the  clump 
exhibits  an  unsightly  mass  of  distorted  stems  smeared  over  and 
connected  with  strings  and  masses  of  black  slime. 

The  time  to  gather  these  fungi  for  the  table  is  before  they 
have  become  much  blackened  underneath..  The  blackening  does 
not  make  them  unpalatable  or  harmful,  but  it  greatly  detracts  from 
the  appetizing  appearance  of  the  prepared  dish,  which  assumes  an 
inkiness  several  degrees  deeper  than  would  be  predicted  from  the 
appearance  of  the  uncooked  material.  It  is  a good  rule,  more- 
over, regarding  all  fungi,  to  discard  over  ripe  and  stale  specimens, 
for  occasionally  they  develop  poison  as  they  approach  decay,  and  if 
they  do  not,  may  yet  cause  sickness,  as  other  stale  vegetables  and 
meats  are  apt  to  do. 

The  method  of  preparation  for  cooking  is  merely  to  rinse 
them  to  remove  dust  and  bits  of  dirt.  Some  persons  think  it  best 
to  peel  all  mushrooms,  but  it  is  a needless  and  wasteful  method, 
and  especially  so  with  the  three  forms  of  coprinus  here  described. 
If  they  are  carefully  gathered  and  handled,  there  should  be  no 
dirt  among  the  gills,  and  only  the  top  and  stems  need  washing. 

The  tan-colored  coprinus,  like  the  other  species  of  coprinus, 
will  not  keep  long  after  gathering.  It  is  best  to  serve  them  the 
same  day  they  are  obtained.  Even  when  placed  in  an  ice  box  they 
can  rarely  be  kept  twenty-four  hours  in  condition  to  be  eaten,  un- 
less they  have  been  gathered  when  not  more  than  half  grown. 

The  tan-colored  coprinus  has  been  described  first,  not  be- 
cause it  is  the  best  or  most  easily  recognized,  but  because  it  is 
the  most  common,  growing  in  yards  and  streets  as  well  as  in  field 
and  forest,  and  appearing  more  or  less  abundantly  throughout  the- 
warm  months..  In  May  and  June,  and  again  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober, it  is  usually  common,  while  during  midsummer  occasional 
clumps  may  be  seen. 

The  gray  coprinus  or  true  ink-cap  {Coprinus  atramentarius) , 
flourishes  during  spring  and  fall,  a warm  shower  often  bringing 
it  out  in  great  numbers,  but  is  rarely  seen  in  midsummer.  It  is  a 
plump,  thick-meated  variety,  much  larger  than  the  tan-colored 
kind,  but  like  it,  grows  in  crowded  clumps  (Plate  2).  It  occurs  in 
rich  pasture  land,  open  woods,  and  especially  about  city  lots  and 


48 


streets  which  have  been  filled  with  geneial  refuse,  street  sweep- 
ings, and  other  decomposable  material  mixed  with  soil.  One  may 
often  see  it  in  the  parking  between  sidewalk  and  street,  or  in  rich 
lawns. 

The  caps  are  egg-shaped,  borne  on  short,  thick  stems.  They 
do  not  noticeably  expand  until  deliquescence  begins,  and  then  not 
very  widely.  The  edges  of  the  cap  are  drawn  in  and  give  a some- 
what puckered  appearance  to  the  lower  portion,  and  where  they 
touch  the  stem  it  appears  to  be  crushed  in  as  if  by  pressure  (Plate 
2,  B).  The  surface  of  the  cap  is  a dull  ashen  gray,  varying  to  sil- 
very gray  and  sometimes  to  a grayish  brown.  It  is  usually 
smooth,  but  occasionlly  slightly  roughened  or  scaly,  especially  to- 
ward the  top.  When  moist  it  has  a mucilaginous  feel.  The  ink- 
cap  is  so  much  larger  and  more  compact  than  the  tan-colored  co- 
prinus  that  it  takes  five  to  eight  of  the  latter  to  weigh  as  much  as 
one  of  the  former,  in  the  same  state  of  development.  The  two 
forms  pass  through  the  same  stages  of  deliquescence.  An  over 
ripe  mass  of  ink-caps  is  shown  in  Plate  i. 

The  shaggy  coprinus,  or  horse-tail  mushroom  (Plate  3),  is 
by  far  the  largest,  most  conspicuous,  and  most  distinctive  of  this 
class  of  toadstools.  It  is  common  in  spring  and  fall  in  similar 
situations  to  those  chosen  by  the  ink-cap.  The  groups  are  usually 
less  crowded  than  of  the  other  two  kinds,  and  small  groups  and 
single  specimens  scattered  about  in  grassland  are  not  rare. 

Like  the  ink-cap,  they  do  not  expand  much  until  deliquescence 
begins.  They  are  oblong,  often  almost  cylindrical,  and  white  or 
nearly  so.  At  a little  distance  one  might  fancy  a lot  of  them  scat- 
tered over  a lawn  to  be  goose  eggs  standing  on  end,  says  a facile 
writer  on  mushrooms.  The  surface  of  the  cap  is  not  smooth,  as  in 
the  other  two  kinds,  but  more  or  less  rough  and  shaggy  with 
curled  up  tufts  of  fibers,  that  are  dark  tipped,  brownish  or  blackish. 
Sometimes  the  roughness  amounts  to  well  defined  locks  falling  in 
waves  about  the  cap,  sometimes  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a wooli- 
ness  of  delicate,  tangled  fibers  flecked  with  color.  Between  and 
beneath  the  shaded  tufts  and  knots,  as  well  as  in  the  gills  and 
stem,  the  color  is  either  a snowy  white  or  a delicate  tinting  of 
pink.  The  rosy  hues  are  usually  more  noticeable  in  large  speci- 
mens than  in  small  ones,  and  disappear  as  the  fungus  matures. 

The  shaggy  coprinus  often  appears  year  after  year  in  lawns 
of  made  ground,  and  if  one  is  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  such  a 
prolific  lawn,  he  should  not  let  the  choicest  of  delicacies  go  a 
begging,  but  gather  each  morning’s  supply  with  as  much  thankful- 
ness as  the  ancient  Israelites  were  wont  to  express  for  their  daily 
portion  of  manna.  He  may  even  find  it  advantageous  to  do 
something  to  preserve  and  augment  the  crop.  One  absolute  need 


49 


of  wild  mushrooms  is  suitable  moisture.  If  they  grow  within  the 
range  of  a hydrant,  and  water  is  applied  so  that  they  do  not  be- 
come at  any  time  either  too  wet  or  too  dry,  a succession  of  crops 
may  be  expected  from  the  same  spot  at  about  fortnightly  inter- 
vals, so  long  as  atmospheric  temperature  continues  favorable.  If 
the  supply  of  water  is  kept  up  during  the  hot  months  of  summer, 
to  keep  the  mycelium  from  dying,  the  mushrooms  will  appear  from 
year  to  year,  and  so  long  as  the  soil  is  amply  rich  they  are  likely 
to  increase  in  quantity,  and  possibly  in  size.  The  amount  of  water 
to  apply  is  about  what  is  needed  to  keep  lawn  grass  in  flourishing 
condition. 

Plate  6 shows  part  of  a day’s  gathering  from  a small  city 
front-yard,  and  the  writer  can  vouch  for  their  gastronomic  quali- 
ty, for  they  were  served  at  his  table  shortly  after  the  photograph 
was  made.  The  central  toadstool  of  the  plateful,  which  was  some- 
what larger  than  the  others,  was  photographed  separately,  and  is 
shown  in  Plate  3.  It  measured  9 inches  in  length,  and  weighed 
6 ounces.  The  plateful  was  cooked  just  as  they  appear,  without 
peeling  or  removing  the  stems,  except  a little  of  the  base  in  a few 
cases,  where  it  had  been  in  contact  with  the  soil. 

As  all  this  descriptive  account  will  be  of  little  or  no  service  if 
the  next  lot  of  coprinus  toadstools  that  the  reader  finds  is  not 
cooked  and  eaten,  and  as  the  reader  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  a novice 
in  the  cooking  of  the  dainty  morsels  as  in  their  detection  in  the 
field,  a few  words  upon  the  culinary  part  of  the  subject  probably 
will  not  be  deemed  amiss.  In  the  first  place,  mushrooms,  as  a 
rule,  are  among  the  tenderest  of  vegetables,  and  the  three  edible 
toadstools  here  described  are  much  the  tenderest  of  the  mush- 
rooms. Coprinuses  need  but  a brief  time  in  which  to  cook,  fifteen 
minutes  usually  being  ample,  and  the  flavor  is  so  delicate  that  the 
addition  of  pungent  sauces,  lemon  juice,  or  other  material  that 
will  mask  the  flavor,  is  to  transform  a delicious,  epicurean  dish  in- 
to a common-place  one. 

As  these  toodstools  are  very  watery,  they  need  no  addition 
of  water  in  cooking.  A very  simple  way  of  cooking  and  one  that 
brings  out  well  the  natural  flavor,  is  to  stew  them  in  their  own 
juices  with  a little  butter  added,  and  a dash  of  salt  and  pepper. 
Serve  on  buttered  toast. 

Another  method  is  to  stew  them  as  before,  using  about  a 
tablespoonful  of  butter  to  a half  pound  of  mushrooms.  Stir  a 
tablespoonful  of  flour  with  a little  cold  milk  until  smooth,  then 
add  a half  pint  of  cream,  or  else  of  milk.  Push  the  mushrooms  to 
one  side  of  the  stewpan,  and  add  the  floured  milk,  with  gentle 
stirring.  When  it  begins  to  boil,  mix  in  the  mushrooms,  but  do 
not  stir  much,  or  they  fall  apart  and  present  a less  attractive  ap- 
pearance. Serve  on  toast. 


50 


Escolloped  coprinuses  form  a still  more  delicious  dish,  al- 
though a little  more  troublesome  to  prepare.  A white  sauce 
should  first  be  made  by  putting  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  into 
a sauce  pan.  When  it  melts  and  bubbles  add  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour,  and  stir  rapidly  until  well  mixed.  Pour  in  a pint  of  milk 
slowly  with  constant  stirring  to  keep  it  smooth.  Let  it  boil  and 
thicken,  then  remove  and  add  a half  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  some 
pepper.  When  the  white  sauce  is  ready  place  in  the  bottom  of  a 
buttered  baking  dish  a layer  of  either  bread  or  cracker  crumbs, 
and  on  this  a layer  of  the  toadstools,  somewhat  cut  up.  Pour  over 
some  white  sauce.  Then  add  a layer  of  crumbs  and  another  layer 
of  toadstools,  and  pour  on  the  remainder  of  the  white  sauce. 
Sprinkle  the  top  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake  in  a moderate 
oven  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

These  are  simple  ways  of  cooking  the  coprinuses  that  are 
likely  to  prove  at  first  as  acceptable  as  any,  and  are  pretty  sure  to 
bring  out  their  distinctively  delicate  and  meaty  flavor,  especially 
if  the  cooking  is  not  prolonged  beyond  the  time  necessary  to  make 
them  tender.  If  other  methods  are  wanted,  and  a suitable  work 
on  edible  mushrooms,  or  a proper  cookbook,  is  not  at  hand,  it 
will  not  be  amiss  to  cook  them  in  any  manner  in  which  oysters 
are  prepared. 

To  further  aid  in  identifying  the  edible  coprinuses  both  com- 
mon and  distinctive  characters  may  be  reviewed.  The  three  species 
agree  in  having  a stem  of  nearly  uniform  diameter,  with  a thick 
wall,  and  a few  indefinite  fibers  running  through  the  hollow  center. 
The  cap  is  lightly  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  stem,  and  is 
densely  lined  beneath  with  broad  gills.  The  cap  does  not  spread 
much  until  maturity,  and  then  slowly,  the  gills  having  largely  dis- 
solved into  ink  before  the  upper  surface  becomes  horizontal.  The 
liquefying  of  the  cap  is  a very  characteristic  feature,  and  quite 
separates  these  toadstools  from  any  poisonous  sorts.  The  tan- 
colored  coprinus  and  the  ink-cap  are  essentially  smooth  on  the 
surface,  while  the  horsetail  or  shaggy  mushroom  is  strongly  floc- 
cose.  In  size  they  range  in  the  order  just  named,  the  tan-colored 
being  the  smallest  and  much  the  lightest.  The  comparative  size, 
and  outline  in  cross  section,  may  be  seen  in  Plate  7.  The  com- 
parative external  appearance  and  also  size  may  be  gathered  by  an 
examination  of  Plates  4,  5 and  6,  which  are  photographed  and  re- 
produced to  a uniform  scale  of  one-half  natural  size.  Plate  i.  A, 
shows  a group  of  ink-caps  in  an  advanced  stage  of  deliquescence, 
and  the  cut  on  the  title  page  shows  a horse-tail  mushroom  in  the 
same  condition.  The  drops  of  ink  produced  need  only  the  ad- 
dition of  a little  glycerine  to  secure  an  even  flow  in  order  to  make 
an  acceptable  writing  fluid. 


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■|3  P 

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o 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  98,  Plate  II. 


A.  Part  of  a clump  of  ink-caps  taken  at  edible  maturity,  although  not  all  of  full  size.  Slightly  under  natu-al  size. 

B.  A single  ink-cap  showing  the  characteristic  form,  the  puckered  appearance  of  the  margin  of  the  cap,  and  the  smooth  part  of  the  stem 
where  the  cap  was  at  first  pressed  against  it.  A small  specimen,  natural  size. 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station. 


Bulletin  98,  Plate  111. 


HORSETAIL  OR  SHAGGY  MUSHROOM. 

A single  horsetail  mushroom  taken  at  edible  maturity.  The  shaggy  surface  is  well  shown. 
The  margin  has  already  separated  from  the  stem  and  begun  to  split  and  expand.  Five- 
sixths  natural  size. 


PliRDUR  ITniv,  Aor.  Rxp.  Station.  Rullotin  98,  Plato  TV. 


A TEA-PLATE  OF  TAN- CiOLOUED  MUSHROOMS. 

(Coprinus  rnicaceus.) 

These  have  been  held  under  a stream  of  running  water  and  the  dust  removed.  They  are  ready  to  cook.  One-half  natural  size. 


A TEA-PLATE  OF  INK-CAPS.  . 

(Coprinua  atramentarius.) 

These  have  been  held  under  a stream  of  running  water  and  the  dust  removed.  They  are  ready  to  cook.  One-half  natural  size. 


Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  98  Plate  V. 


Purdue  Univ.  Aqr.  Exp.  Station.  Bulletin  98,  Plate  VI. 


(Coprinus  comatus.) 

The  central  specimen  is  the  Same  individual  as  shown  on  Plate  III.  The  variation  in  different  specimens  from  a very  shaggy  to  a mealy 
surface  is  well  shown.  They  are  ready  to  cook.  One-half  natural  size. 


PuEDUE  Umv,  Age.  Exp.  Station 


Bulletin  98,  Plate  VII. 


Outline  of  a section  throupfh  the  middle  of  three  edible  toadstools:  a Tan-colored  mush- 

room (C.  niicaceua),  b Ink-cap  (C.  atramentariua) , c Horse-tail  mushroom  (C.  comatus). 
Natural  size. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  99.  Vol.  XII. 
March,  1904. 


Tests  of  Small  Fruits. 


PuDllshed  by  llie  station: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA. 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


WiLUAM  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
William  A.  Banks,  . _ . . LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 

Sv^LVESTER  Johnson,  - - - - Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Beem,  - - _ _ _ Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  - _ . LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  - - _ _ Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Major,  _ _ _ . Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  President  of  the  University. 


Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  - - - - - Botanist. 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Assistant  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  _ _ _ Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  - . - - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Tests  of  Small  Fruits. 


By  James  Troop. 

During  the  past  15  years  this  department  has  grown  from  100 
to  150  varieties  of  small  fruits  annually,  but  the  season  of  1903  was 
the  most  unfavorable  for  strawberries  which  we  have  ex- 
perienced during  that  time,  owing  to  late  frosts  which  destroyed 
fully  50  per  cent,  of  the  crop  and  heavy  rains  which  followed  caus- 
ing a lack  of  fertilization  and  an  unusual  number  of  knotty  or 
“buttoned”  berries.  For  this  reason  it  would  be  hardly  fair  to  pass 
judgment  upon  their  behavior  during  last  season,  and  were  it  not 
that  so  many  questions  have  been  asked  concerning  them  no  bulle- 
tin would  have  been  issued.  But  as  the  greater  number  of  varieties 
have  been  grown  here  for  two  or  more  years  the  results  given 
may  be  taken  as  representing  a fair  estimate  of  their  value  on  our 
heavy  black,  sandy  loam,  with  a gravelly  subsoil.  In  addition  to 
the  newer  varieties  of  strawberries,  we  also  have  a number  of  the 
older  varieties  such  as  Bubach,  Haverland  and  Warfield,  which  have 
been  grown  for  ten  or  more  years.  These  are  kept  as  standards  with 
which  to  compare  the  newer  varieties.  The  climatic  conditions  were 
more  favorable  for  raspberries  and  blackberries,  the  latter  of  which 
arc  often  injured  by  a lack  of  moisture,  seldom,  if  ever,  by  an  excess. 


Strawberries. 

Our  list  of  strawberries  comprises  62  varieties,  and  a record  of 
the  behavior  of  some  of  the  newer  varieties,  as  to  plant  growth  and 
bearing  qualities,  follows : 

NOTES  ON  THE  NEWER  VARIETIES. 

August  Luther. — B.  Tliis  variety  originated  in  Missouri,  and 
has  been  grown  on  our  grounds  for  two  seasons.  It  is  one  of  the 


62 


earliest  varieties,  ripening  with  Beder  Wood  and  Johnson’s  Early. 
The  fruit  is  only  medium  in  size,  but  good  quality;  plants  healthy 
and  vigorous,  and  fairly  productive.  Its  earliness,  however,  is  its 
principal  recommendation. 

Bennett. — P.  This  is  a mid-season  variety.  Fruit  medium  in 
size,  bright  red,  firm,  and  of  fair  quality.  The  plant  is  a good  grow- 
er, and  moderately  productive.  It  is  not  a variety  that  will  come 
into  general  use. 

Bismark. — B.  This  is  said  to  be  a seedling  of  Bubach.  It  is 
about  as  large  as  its  parent  and  firmer  in  texture,  a good  grower, 
productive,  and  being  self-fertile,  is  a good  variety  for  a fancy  market. 

Bryan. — B.  In  plant  this  is  about  all  that  could  be  desired,  but 
for  a market  berry,  it  falls  short  in  productiveness,  and  the  fruit  is 
not  large  enough  to  make  it  popular  in  the  best  markets. 

Bush  Cluster. — B.  This  variety  was  grown  three  years  ago  for 
the  first,  and  has  done  fairly  well  since  but  it  will  doubtless  follow  a 
great  many  others  which  have  promised  well  when  first  introduced 
but  failed  later  on. 

Dole. — B.  A strong  grower,  but  only  a medium  bearer  of 
fine  large  fruit.  If  it  was  more  productive  it  would  do  to  recom- 
mend. 

Dozvning's  Bride. — P.  This  variety  has  been  grown  here  two 
years  and  has  given  very  good  satisfaction.  The  plant  is  a good 
grower,  not  quite  as  hardy  as  some,  but  with  ordinary  winter  pro- 
tection will  keep  all  right.  The  fruit  is  large,  conical  in  form,  and 
a bright  red  color.  It  is  undoubtedly  a valuable  addition  to  our 
market  varieties. 

Dunlap. — B.  While  this  can  scarcely  be  called  a new  variety, 
it  is  not  as  well  known  as  its  merits  deserve.  For  a general  purpose 
berry,  it  has  few  if  any  superiors,  not  only  on  our  soil,  but  reports 
from  other  soils  and  localities  show  this  to  be  true.  The  fruit  is  not 
quite  so  dark  colored  as  Warfield,  which  is  a favorite  color  for  can- 
ning, but  in  other  respects  it  is  fully  its  equal. 

Early  Beauty. — B.  This  variety  originated  in  Iowa  and  is  said 
to  be  one  of  the  earliest  varieties  grown.  It  is  among  the  first  to 
ripen,  and  is  fairly  productive,  but  does  not  show  any  superiority 
over  some  other  varieties  in  other  respects. 


63 


Hmperor  and  Empress  have  been  grown  here  for  two  seasons 
and  while  they  have  borne  some  nice  fruit  they  have  not  shown  any 
superiority  over  many  others  with  less  pretentious  names. 

Enormous. — P.  This  is  a vigorous  plant,  holding  its  fruit  well 
up  on  strong  stems,  making  it  easy  to  pick.  The  fruit  is  large,  firm, 
of  good  color  and  quality. 

Gibson. — B.  Midseason,  following  Beder  Wood  and  other 
very  early  varieties,  making  it  a good  variety  for  a succession.  The 
fruit  is  large  and  showy,  dark  glossy  red,  firm  and  of  good  quality ; 
as  large  as  the  Marshall,  but  more  productive ; a good  variety  for  the 
fancy  market. 

Gladstone. — B.  This  is  about  the  same  season  as  Gibson  and 
about  all  of  the  good  qualities  ascribed  to  that  variety  may  be  re- 
peated here. 

Granville. — B.  Plant  large,  vigorous  and  healthy,  fairly  pro- 
ductive, fruit  medium  to  large,  conical,  dark  glossy  red,  a good  can- 
ner.  Season  medium  to  late.  We  grew  this  berry  before  it  was  in- 
troduced to  the  general  trade  and  have  always  found  it  to  give  good 
results. 

Howard. — P.  This  is  a Michigan  variety,  grown  here  for  three 
years.  Season  medium ; a strong  grower,  berries  large,  slight  conic, 
bright  red,  a little  too  soft  for  market.  If  it  was  a little  more  pro- 
ductive it  would  be  a valuable  variety  for  the  general  grower. 

Hunn. — P.  A very  late  variety,  but  is  not  reliable  here.  It  is 
said  to  be  wonderfully  productive  on  some  soils.  It  seems  to  be  one 
of  those  varieties  that  each  man  must  test  for  himself. 

Johnson's  Early. — B.  A very  desiral^le  berry  either  for  market 
or  home  use.  The  plant  is  healthy  and  a good  grower,  bearing  a 
good  quantity  of  medium  to  large  berries  of  good  quality.  This  is  a 
great  improvement  over  Michel’s  Early  which  does  not  pay  for 
the  room  it  occupies  on  our  soil. 

Kansas. — P.  Fairly  productive  ; fruit  rather  small  and  only  fair 
quality.  Not  a good  market  variety  with  us. 

Klondike. — B.  While  the  majority  of  the  blooms  on  this  va- 
riety are  perfect,  yet  it  should  he  j)lantcd  with  some  other  variety 
which  blossoms  early  as  some  of  the  early  blooms  are  ])istillate.  It 


64 


is  nearly  as  late  as  Gandy,  and  bears  a good  crop  of  fine  berries, 
which  are  a little  light  colored  for  canning. 

McKinley. — B.  Three  years’  experience  with  this  variety  proves 
it  to  be  a good  grower,  free  from  disease,  but  only  moderately  pro- 
ductive. 4 he  berries  are  bright  red,  large,  and  inclined  to  be  rough. 
In  some  localities  it  has  given  very  good  satisfaction. 

Miller. — B.  Ihis  variety  came  from  Mr.  Crawford,  of  Ohio, 
two  years  ago,  and  has  shown  up  wonderfully  well.  It  makes  a 
large,  healthy  plant  which  makes  a good  supply  of  runners,  and  bears 
heavy  crops  of  large,  roundish-conical,  bright  red  berries.  Its  sea- 
son is  from  medium  to  late. 

Morgan's  Favorite. — B.  This  variety  would  give  good  satisfac- 
tion as  a home  berry,  but  the  fruit,  while  large,  is  too  soft  for  ship- 
ping any  considerable  distance. 

Nettie. — P.  Plant  a good  grower.  Fruit  large,  light  red  color, 
and  very  tart.  Too  much  so  for  many  tastes. 

New  York. — B.  This  variety  has  fruited  two  seasons,  and 
seems  to  be  a good  variety  for  either  market  or  home  use.  The  fruit 
is  large,  roundish-conical,  dark  red  color,  fairly  firm  and  of  good 
quality.  Plants  fairly  productive. 

Parsons  Beauty. — B.  This  variety  seems  to  possess  about  all 
of  the  good  qualities  that  go  to  make  up  a good  market  berry.  It, 
however,  is  most  too  tart  to  suit  the  general  taste,  but  is  excellent 
for  canning. 

Purdue. — P.  Although  we  have  grown  this  variety  for  a num- 
ber of  years,  it  has  never  been  put  upon  the  market.  It  originated 
on  the  Experiment  Station  grounds,  and  is  the  result  of  a cross  be- 
tween Jessie  and  Bubach.  The  fruit  resembles  Jessie  while  the  plant 
is  much  like  Bubach ; strong  and  healthy,  and  more  prolific  than 
either.  Growing  along  side  of  Clyde  it  has  out-yielded  that  variety, 
and  that  means  a good  deal.  We  shall  not  dispose  of  any  plants  this 
year. 

Robbie. — B.  This  variety  starts  out  in  a very  promising  man- 
ner, but  does  not  hold  up.  The  season  is  late,  and  berries  too  light 
for  a market  variety. 

Rough  Rider. — B.  This  variety  has  l^een  grown  here  three 


65 


years  and  will  be  discarded,  mainly  because  of  its  rough,  angular 
fruit,  which  renders  it  unfit  to  be  placed  alongside  of  such  varieties 
as  Clyde  or  Dunlap. 

Sampson. — B.  This  variety  and  the  Miller  came  from  the 

same  lot  of  seedlings,  originating  on  the  ground  of  Mr.  P.  J.  Miller, 
of  Ohio.  It  seems  to  be  a worthy  companion  of  the  Miller  as  it 
‘possesses  most  of  the  latter’s  good  qualities,  and  is  partially  pistil- 
late, especially  early  in  the  season. 

South  Bend. — B.  This  variety  originated  near  South  Bend, 
Ind.,  and  has  been  grown  here  several  seasons,  with  good  results.  It 
is  a fine  large  berry,  and  a strong,  healthy,  vigorous  growing  plant. 

Stahelin. — P.  This  variety  was  sent  us  for  trial  before  it  was 
put  upon  the  market,  and  it  has  given  very  satisfactory  results  each 
year.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  to  bloom  and  is  recommended  for  gen- 
eral plantnig  for  an  early  variety. 

Uncle  Jim. — B.  A large,  healthy  and  productive  plant,  with 
deep,  penetrating  roots  which  render  it  capable  of  withstanding  dry 
weather,  and  ripening  its  fruit  to  the  end  of  the  season,  which  is 
quite  late.  The  fruit  is  large,  long-conical,  dark  red,  firm  and  of 
good  quality. 

A Few  Older  Varieties  Recommended  for  the  General  Planter. 

Beder  Wood. — B.  For  an  early  pollenizcr  and  for  early  fruit. 

Brunette. — B.  If  there  are  some  in  the  family  whose  digestive 
system  is  not  quite  up  to  the  standard,  this  is  the  berry  for  them 
to  eat. 

Buhach. — P.  Those  who  have  never  planted  this  old  variety 
should  do  so  this  spring.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  showy 
berries  grown,  where  well  cared  for. 

Clyde. — B.  If  one  has  but  a small  piece  of  ground  that  can  be 
devoted  to  strawberries,  this  is  the  variety  to  })lant.  It  is  wonder- 
fully productive  under  good  cultivation. 

Enhance. — B.  and  Eureka. — P.  These  make  a fine  pair,  when 
])lantc(l  in  adjoining  rows,  the  one  being  staminate  and  the  other 


66 


pistillate.  Both  make  good,  strong  plants,  and  produce  good  crops 
of  fine  berries. 

Gandy. — B.  For  a late  berry  this  is  one  of  the  best ; coming  in 
just  after  the  earlier  varieties  are  gone,  it  prolongs  the  season,  pro- 
ducing large,  fine  berries  until  red  raspberries  are  ripe. 

Greenville. — P.  As  a mid-season  berry  this  will  give  excellent 
satisfaction  when  planted  with  some  good  variety  for  a pollenizer.’ 

Haverland. — P.  An  entirely  different  type  of  berry  from  Bu- 
bach,  and  ripens  several  days  earlier.  It  is  one  of  those  varieties 
that  the  grower  -can  not  well  afford  to  be  without.  It  should  be 
planted  with  Beder  Wood  or  some  other  early  variety. 

Sample. — P.  This  is  another  mid-season  variety  which  under 
good  care,  makes  a very  vigorous  growth  of  plants,  and  produces 
large  crops  of  large  fruit  of  good  quality,  and  firm  enough  to  ship. 

Warfield. — P.  All  who  wish  to  can  strawberries  should  raise 
this  variety.  Medium  size,  dark,  giossy  red  color,  rather  acid,  it 
holds  its  color  and  flavor  better,  when  canned  than  any  other  berry. 


Raspberries. 

In  their  present  location  the  varieties  have  been  grown  only 
two  years ; but  many  of  them  are  well  known  varieties,  and  scarcely 
need  any  comment.  Our  experience  for  the  past  eight  years  in  sub- 
soiling ground  for  raspberries  and  blackberries  has  been  so  successful 
in  preventing  drouth  that  I am  convinced  that  it  will  pay  well  to 
subsoil  fifteen  inches  deep,  where  the  subsoil  is  very  hard  and  com- 
pact. 


6; 


Table:  ob  Varie:ties  of  Raspbfrrifs. 


With  the  Standing  of  Each. 


Variety  and  Class 

First 

ripe 

Last 

pick- 

ing 

Vigor 

of 

Plant 

Hardi- 

i^ess 

Pro- 

duc- 

tive- 

ness 

Size 

Form 

Qual- 

ity 

Rubus  Neglectus 

Caroline 

6—15 

7 — "^5 

8 

10 

7 

m 

r 

8 

Cardinal 

6—20 

7 — 15 

10 

10 

9 

1 

r 

10 

Columbian 

6-20 

7 — 15 

10 

10 

10 

1 

rc 

10 

Haymaker 

6—20 

7—18 

10 

10 

10 

1 

rc 

10 

Shaffer 

6—22 

7—15 

9 

9 

9 

1 

rc 

9 

Rubus  Strigosus 

Brandywine 

6—10 

7—  4 

10 

10 

8 

ni 

rc 

9 

Cuthbert  

6-  18 

7—12 

10 

10 

10 

1 

rc 

9 

Golden  Queen  . ... 

6—15 

7—  8 

10 

10 

10 

1 

rc 

9 

King-  

6—  8 

7—  5 

10 

10 

10 

m 

r 

10 

Loudon 

6—15 

7 — 5 

10 

10 

9 

m 

r 

9 

Marlboro  

6—20 

7—  8 

7 

9 

7 

1 

r 

8 

Miller 

6—10 

7—  5 

10 

10 

9 

m 

r 

9 

Thompson’s  Karl3\ 

6—10 

7—  3 

9 

10 

9 

m 

r 

9 

Turner 

6—12 

7—  2 

9 

10 

8 

s 

r 

8 

Rubus  Occidentalis 

Black  Diamond.  . . . 

6—18 

7—10 

10 

10 

10 

1 

r 

10 

Conrath  

6—10 

7—  2 

10 

10 

10 

1 

r 

10 

Cumberland 

6—15 

7—10 

10 

10 

10 

1 

r 

10 

Rureka 

6—14 

7—  5 

10 

10 

10 

m 

r 

10 

(^rCfTcr 

6—20 

7—10 

9 

8 

8 

1 

r 

9 

Hilborn 

6-14 

7—10 

10 

10 

9 

m 

r 

8 

Kansas.  . 

6 — 15 

7 — 5 

10 

10 

10 

1 

m 

r 

10 

Lovxtt 

6—16 

7 - 2 

9 

10 

8 

9 

Munf^-er 

6—12 

7—  8 

10 

10 

10 

1 

r 

10 

Nemaha 

6—21 

7—12 

10 

10 

10 

1 

r 

9 

Older 

6—15 

7—10 

10 

10 

9 

m 

r 

9 

Palmer 

6—12 

7—  1 

10 

10 

8 

111  to  s 

r 

8 

Souheg-an 

6—10 

7—  2 

9 

10 

8 

1 

rc 

9 

68 


Blackberries. 

We  can  never  be. certain  of  a blackberry  crop  on  the  Station 
grounds,  as  a drouth  during  the  ripening  season  is  sure  to  cut  them 
short.  The  past  year  however,  was  an  exception  and  all  varieties 
did  their  best.  The  following  varieties  have  fruited  but  two  years  in 
their  present  location. 

Following  is  the  record  in  tabular  form : 


Variety 

First 

ripe 

Last 

picking 

Vigor 

of 

Plant 

Hardi- 

ness 

Pro- 

duc- 

tive- 

ness 

Size 

Qual- 

ity 

Rubus  Villosus 

Ag'awam 

7—  2 

7—25 

9 

10 

8 

1 

9 

Briton 

7—  5 

7—24 

9 

10 

9 

m 

8 

Early  Harvest 

6—30 

7—12 

7 

6 

6 

s 

9 

Earl3^  King- 

6—30 

7—12 

8 

8 

7 

1 

9 

Eldorado  

7—  5 

7—22 

10 

10 

8 

m 

10 

Erie 

7—  5 

7—20 

10 

9 

9 

1 

10 

Kittatinny 

7—  3 

7—18 

10 

10 

8 

1 

9 

Ohnier 

7—.  5 

7—20 

9 

10 

8 

1 

9 

Rathburn 

7—  2 

7—20 

10 

10 

10 

1 

10 

Stone 

7 — 7 

7—20 

9 

9 

7 

in 

8 

Taylor 

7—  2 

7—18 

9 

10 

8 

in 

10 

Wachusett 

7—  8 

7—22 

9 

10 

8 

1 

9 

Western  Triumph 

7—  8 

7—22 

10 

10 

9 

m 

9 

Snyder 

7—  5 

7—25 

10 

10 

9 

in 

9 

Purdue  Universitu 

t 

Aflricultural  Experiment  Station 


. BULLETIN  No.  100.  Vol.  XII 

SEPTEMBER,  1Q04 


DISELASES  OF  SWINE 


PuDllshed  by  the  Station: 
LAFAYETTE  INDIANA. 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


William  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
William  A.  Banks,  _ _ - _ LaPorte,  LaPorte  Co. 

Sv'LVESTER  Johnson,  " “ " ’ , Lvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Blkm,  -----  Spencer,  Owen  Co. 
Job  H.  VanNatta,  - - - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - _ - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Major,  . - - - Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Assistant  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - • - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  - _ - - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Diseases  of  Swine 


R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.  V.  M. 

A.  W.  BITTING,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

This  brief  monograph  upon  the  diseases  of  swine  is  presented  with  the 
view  of  giving  some  help  to  the  numerous  breeders  of  swine.  It  is  not 
offered  as  a complete  treatise — just  as  a little  helper.  The  swine  breeder 
can  not  purchase  books  upon  the  diseases  of  his  animals  as  may  be  done 
upon  the  diseases  of  horses  or  cattle,  as  there  are  few  works  that  treat 
upon  the  subject.  It  has  been  only  a short  time’ since  it  was  thought  to 
be  easier  and  cheaper  to  raise  a new  lot  of  pigs,  than  to  give  much  at- 
tention to  treating  their  diseases.  This  condition  is  rapidly  changing. 
Individual  hogs  now  bring  the  price  of  a good  horse  so  often,  that  the 
same  attention  is  demanded  in  caring  for  them.  The  number  of  hogs  that 
bring  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  each,  has  rapidly  increased  in  the 
past  few  years  and  an  occasional  animal  brings  more  than  a thousand 
dollars.  The  annual  production  of  swine  amounts  to  more  than  $20,000,000 
in  this  State.  There  are  more  persons  engaged  in  raising  pigs  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  live  stock  industry  except  poultry.  The  annual  losses 
reach  about  $2,000,000,  so  there  is  demand  for  information  that  will 
help  to  reduce  this  loss  both  by  prevention  and  treatment.  This  is  fur- 
ther shown  by  the  fact  that  there  are  more  inquiries  concerning  the  dis- 
eases of  swine  than  are  made  concerning  the  diseases  of  cattle  and  horses. 

Acknowledgement  is  due  to  the  Office  of  State  Veterinarian  for  a large 
part  of  the  work  herewith  presented. 


72 


DISEASES  IN  GENERAL.  , 

As  a matter  of  convenience  and  to  aid  in  understanding  diseases,  we 
divide  them  into  three  classes,  sporadic,  contagious,  and  infectious.  This 
classification  is  purely  arbitrary  and  is  based  upon  the  nature  of  the  cause. 
Sporadic  diseases  are  those  which  have  no  one  constant  cause.  A variety 
of  causes  may  produce  the  same  disease.  Colic,  diarrhoea,  rheumatism, 
colds,  etc.,  are  types  of  sporadic  diseases.  Colic  for  example  may  be 
caused  by  a change  of  food,  by  green  food,  by  spoiled  food,  by  watering 
when  the  animal  is  too  warm,  by  contaminated  water,  by  drugs,  by  ex- 
haustion, by  exposure,  by  intestinal  worms,  etc.  There  is  no  single 
cause  for  colic,  colds  or  any  other  sporadic  disease.  In  sporadic  diseases, 
the  disease  can  not  be  conveyed  from  one  animal  to  another  as  there  is 
no  specific  germ  or  other  organism  acting.  If  several  animals  are  affected 
alike  at  the  same  time,  it  is  because  all  have  been  subjected  to  like  causes 
and  not  because  it  has  spread  from  one  to  another.  As  a rule,  only  one 
or  a few  animals  of  a stable,  herd  or  flock  are  affected  at  one  time  and 
there  is  no  tendency  to  spread. 

Contagious  diseases  are  those  which  are  always  produced  by  the  same 
cause,  and  the  causative  factor  may  be  communicated  from  one  animal 
to  another  of  the  same  species,  or  in  some  cases  to  animals  of  different 
species.  When  we  speak  of  strictly  contagious  diseases,  we  usually  have 
reference  to  those  due  to  germs,  or  animal  life  that  are  normally  parasitic 
and  do  not  live  or  multiply  outside  the  body,  and  which  require 
comparatively  close  contact  in  order  to  spread.  Distance,  or  a compara- 
tively short  time  between  the  coming  of  animals  to  the  same  place  are 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  spread.  In  other  words,  the  germ  does  not  pass 
an  indefinite  distance  between  the  animals  or  live  for  a long  time  out- 
side the  animal’s  body.  As  examples  of  this  type  of  disease,  we  have 
sheep  scab,  tape  worms,  glanders,  pleuro  pneumonia,  etc.  In  the  case  of 
sheep  scab  the  cause  is  always  the  scab  mite;  it  can  not  travel  alone  and 
will  not  live  in  the  pens,  in  the  cars,  on  the  fences  or  other  objects  with 
which  the  diseased  sheep  may  come  in  contact  for  a long  time.  Therefore 
sheep  separated  by  a roadway,  or  flocks  using  the  pens  where  diseased 
sheep  have  been  some  months  prior  do  not  become  affected,  Pleuro  pneu- 
monia in  cattle  is  also  a contagious  disease  and  at  one  time  had  a foothold 
in  this  country.  It  is  a disease  in  which  the  germ  does  not  live  long 


73 


outside  the  body  and  is  only  carried  by  contact  or  artificial  means.  Jt 
was  eradicated  by  destroying  all  that  were  affected  and  disinfecting  the 
places  where  it  had  been.  Glanders  among  horses  is  also  contagious  and 
it  is  only  spread  by  contact  or  close  association.  All  strictly  contagious 
diseases  are  controllable  and  could  be  exterminated  by  united  effort.  The 
drastic  measures  used  to  stamp  out  pleuro  pneumonia  would  stamp  out 
sheep  scab  in  a short  time. 

Infectious  diseases  are  those  caused  by  some  special  agent  or  parasite 
and  the  cause  may  live  and  multiply  outside  the  body.  Infectious  dis- 
eases may  be  and  frequently  are  contagious.  Some  infectious  diseases 
however  are  not  contagious.  The  line  separating  contagious  and  infec- 
tious diseases  is  not  very  clear.  The  distinction  is  largely  one  of  degree. 
Among  the  types  of  infectious  diseases  we  have  lumpy  jaw,  and  black- 
leg of  cattle;  distemper,  and  infiuenza  of  horses,  cholera,  and  swine  plague 
in  hogs,  and  roup  in  poultry.  True  lumpy  jaw  of  cattle  is  always  caused 
by  ray  fungus.  The  fungus  is  obtained  upon  the  food  which  the  ani- 
mal takes,  the  disease  is  rarely  spread  by  the  discharges  from  the 
wound.  Blackleg  is  obtained  from  the  pasture  or  forage,  the  germs  being 
known  to  live  for  a long  time  outside  of  the  body.  Infiuenza  and  strang- 
les occur  in  epidemics  because  the  germs  live  outside  of  the  body  and  un- 
der-favorable climatic  conditions  develop  generally,  thus  causing  wide- 
spread outbreaks  at  the  same  time.  Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  are 
both  infectious  and  contagious,  the  germs  live  outside  the  body  and  no 
amount  of  separation  of  herds  will  ever  stamp  out  the  diseases.  It  only 
decreases  the  number  of  cases.  The  germs  of  tetanus  or  lock  jaw  are  to 
be  found  growing  in  the  soil,  but  do  not  cause  trouble  unless  accidentally 
introduced  into  a closed  wound.  Infectious  diseases  can  not  be  wholly 
controlled  because  the  occurrence  in  an  animal  is  not  essential  to  the 
life  of  the  germ.  Some  may  be  prevented  by  vaccination,  as  blackleg, 
and  some  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  learning  the  habitat  of  the  germs 
outside  of  the  body  and  making  those  places  uncongenial  for  their  growth. 

THE  CAUSES  OF  DISEASE. 

The  causes  of  disease  are  the  indirect  or  predisposing  causes  and  the 
direct  or  exciting  causes.  The  predisposing  causes  are  any  factors  which 


74 


tend  to  render  the  body  more  susceptible  or  to  favor  the  presence  of  the 
exciting  cause.  The  exciting  cause  is  the  specific  agent  or  thing  that  in- 
duces the  diseases.  To  illustrate,  an  animal  having  a narrow,  pinched 
chest  may  be  in  health  but  when  subjected  to  the  same  conditions  as  its 
companions,  it  contracts  disease  while  they  do  not.  The  lessened  lung 
capacity  has  rendered  the  animal  susceptible.  Hogs  pastured  on  high 
dry  ground  and  fed  on  clean  feeding  floors  are  generally  free  from  intes- 
tinal worms,  while  hogs  pastured  upon  low  wet  ground  and  fed  in  the 
mud  are  frequently  infested  with  worms.  In  the  first  case  the  predis- 
posing cause  was  in  the  animal,  in  the  second,  it  was  in  the  surroundings. 
Among  the  causes  of  disease  we  may  briefly  consider  the  following: 

Age. — Young  animals  are  more  subject  to  attacks  of  contagious  or  in- 
fectious diseases  than  old.  '^'hite  scours,  suppurative  joint  disease,  and 
infectious  sore  mouths  are  diseases  of  the  first  few  days  or  weeks.  Thumps 
CKcur  early.  Cholera  occurs  with  much  greater  virulence  in  those  under 
six  months  of  age  than  in  the  older.  Lung  worms  or  whooping  cough 
occurs  between  two  and  four  months.  Swine  plague  attacks  the  older 
hogs.  Trichinae  likewise  more  often  occurs  in  mature  animals.  As 
a rule,  the  young  are  more  subject  to  acute  diseases  and  the  old  to  chronic 
troubles. 

Sex. — The  matter  of  sex  has  little  bearing  on  the  diseases  of  swine 
other  than  those  due  to  farrowing. 

Breed. — The  matter  of  breed  is  of  less  importance  in  the  diseases  of 
swine  than  in  other  domestic  animals.  Some  breeds  are  more  active 
than  others  and  thereby  seem  to  have  increased  resistive  powers  to  some 
troubles.  For  example,  pigs  from  the  more  active  breeds  seldom  have 
thumps  if  allowed  exercise.  It  is  the  lazy,  fat  fellows  that  are  particularly 
susceptible. 

Care  and  Feeding. — These  are  factors  of  great  importance.  The  feeding 
of  unsuitable  foods,  as  city  swill,  dirty,  sour  slop,  those  containing  large 
quantities  of  soaps,  feeding  too  heavily  when  too  young,  feeding  full 
rations  of  green  com  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  feeding  cotton  seed,  feeding 
with  too  limited  exercise,  pasturing  upon  clover  sod  where  there  are  many 
grub  worms  and  upon  land  known  to  be  infected  with  parasites,  are  all 
factors  contributing  to  some  forms  of  disease. 

Shelter. — Sudden  changes  of  temperature,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 


75 


exposure  to  storms,  etc.,  all  have  their  effect.  Piling  under  straw  stacks 
and  hot  sheds  prediosposes  to  pneumonia.  Lying  in  damp  beds  causes  skin 
troubles.  The  hog  does  not  need  a great  deal  of  shelter,  but  needs  that 
dry  and  comfortable. 

Location. — Sometimes  the  difference  of  a few  rods  makes  the  difference 
between  having  disease  in  a herd  and  not  having  it.  A dry,  protected  site 
is  always  preferable  to  one  in  the  open  or  low. 

Water  supply. — The  work  of  this  Station  has  been  such  as  to  prove 
that  only  well  water,  deep  well  water  from  a tubular  well,  can  be  rec- 
ommended for  all  kinds  of  farm  animals.  This  applies  with  possibly  great- 
er force  to  the  hog  than  to  any  other  class  because  cholera,  a water 
borne  disease,  is  the  principal  scourge.  In  actual  practice,  however,  the 
reverse  condition  prevails. 

Previous  disease. — The  effect  of  one  attack  of  an  infectious  disease  as 
a rule  confers  immunity  against  a subsequent  attack.  This  is  not  true 
of  all,  but  of  many.  One  attack  of  cholera  will  not  give  complete  im- 
munity, but  does  reduce  the  chances  of  a second  attack.  The  effect  of  one 
disease  may  weaken  a part  and  make  the  animal  susceptible  to  some  other 
trouble,  as  lung  worms  may  make  it  easy  to  acquire  pneumonia. 

Vital  causes. — The  vital  causes  are  all  living  organisms,  either  plant 
or  animal,  that  act  as  parasites  at  any  stage  of  their  existance.  They 
may  be  either  accessory  or  direct  causes.  The  animal  parasites  are  lice, 
intestinal  worms,  flukes,  trichina,  etc.  The  plant  parasites  are  nearly  all 
bacteria;  the  cause  of  cholera,  swine  plague,  scours,  joint  disease,  sore 
mouth,  etc.  They  may  act  as  accessory  causes,  as  the  lung  worm  may  pre- 
pare the  way  for  pneumonia,  or  directly  cause  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
cholera  germ. 


DIAGNOSIS  AND  SYMPTOMS. 

In  examining  a hog  the  behavior,  appearance,  general  conditions  and 
surroundings  must  all  be  taken  into  consideration. 

The  grouping  of  symptoms  into  signs  of  disease  is  not  as  difficult 
in  the  hog  as  it  is  in  some  of  the  other  farm  animals,  but  in  order  to 
recognize  any  deviation  from  the  normal,  we  must  be  familiar  with  the 
habits  of  the  animal,  the  structure  and  the  physiological  functions  of  the 


76 


body,  or  at  least  possess  a practical  knowledge  of  these  things.  Swine 
breeders  have  plenty  of  opportunity  to  learn  this  from  personal  observa- 
tion; without  this  knowledge  it  is  not  possible  to  care  for,  or  treat  hogs 
in  an  intelligent  manner  when  sick. 

The  general  symptoms,  those  affecting  the  entire  system,  inform  us 
as  to  the  condition  of  the  animal  at  the  outset  and  during  the  progress  of 
a disease.  Thus  we  have  the  symptoms  connected  with  (a)  the  pulse;  (b) 
the  respiration;  (c)  the  body  temperature;  (d)  the  mucous  membranes; 
(e)  the  surface  of  the  body;  (f)  the  secretions  and  excretions:  and  (g) 
the  nervous  system. 

All  of  the  general  symptoms  manifested  by  the  hog  are  seldom  con- 
sidered either  in  the  diagnosis  or  the  treatment  of  disease.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  when  treating  valuable  stock  hogs,  why  a full  knowledge 
of  the  condition  of  the  animal  should  not  be  of  the  same  importance  as  in 
the  treatment  of  other  domestic  animals,  and  if  possible  this  should  be 
obtained. 

Pulse — The  pulse  can  be  easily  taken  in  the  hog  from  the  femoral  ar- 
tery on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh.  The  artery  crosses  this  region  in  an 
oblique  direction  and  is  quite  superficial  toward  the  anterior  (forward) 
and  lower  part.  The  normal  number  of  pulse  beats  per  minute  is  usually 
estimated  at  about  seventy  to  eighty.  In  young  pigs,  and  when  the  animal 
is  exercised  or  excited,  the  rate  is  much  higher. 

The  following  varieties  of  pulse  are  recognized  in  disease:  frequent 
or  infrequent,  quick  or  slow,  large  or  small,  hard  or  soft  and  regular  or 
intermittent.  The  frequency  of  the  pulse  has  reference  to  the  number 
of  pulsations  per  minute;  quick  or  slow  to  the  time  required  for  the  pulse 
wave  to  pass  under  the  finger;  large  or  small,  to  the  volume  of  blood  that 
passes  at  each  beat;  hard  or  soft  to  the  sense  of  feeling  while  the  blood 
is  passing  under  the  fingers;  and  regular  or  intermittent  to  the  intervals 
between  the  beats.  There  may  be  a number  of  beats  regular  and  in  time 
and  then  the  missing  of  one  or  two,  or  there  may  be  increased  rapidity 
of  a few  beats  and  then  a decrease.  The  condition  of  the  circulation  may 
also  be  judged  by  placing  the  hand  on  the  left  side  of  the  chest  and  as 
nearly  over  the  heart  as  possible. 

Respirations. — The  number  of  respirations  per  minute  is  subject  to 
considerable  variation.  When  at  rest,  they  will  vary  from  ten  to  twenty; 


77 


if  warm  or  excited  and  during  exercise,  from  sixty  to  about  one  hundred. 
In  hogs,  normal  respirations  are  frequently  accompanied  by  respiratory 
sounds.  In  disease  the  respirations  may  be  quickened  and  their  character 
changed,  as  in  pleurisy,  peritonitis,  pneumonia,  etc.  In  the  abdominal 
form  of  respiration,  the  movements  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  are  limited. 
This  occurs  in  pleurisy.  In  the  thorasic  form  of  respiration  the  abdominal 
wall  is  held  rigid  and  the  movement  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  make  up 
for  the  deficiency.  This  latter  condition  is  seen  in  peritonitis. 

In  inflammation  of  the  air  passages  and  irritation  from  dust  or  para- 
sites, the  secretions  from  the  lining  membranes  are  modified  and  there  is 
usually  sneezing  or  coughing.  In  the  different  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  the  modified  sounds  are  of  much  value  in  the  diagnosis  and  in 
indicating  the  progress. 

Temperature. — The  body  temperature  is  taken  per  rectum,  the  ordinary 
fever  thermometer  being  used.  The  normal  temperature  of  a hog  will  vary 
from  100.5  to  105  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the  average  being  about  103.  In 
order  to  determine  the  normal,  it  is  well  to  take  that  of  some  of  the 
other  animals  in  the  pen  and  make  a comparison.  Exercise  and  warm 
pens  will  increase  body  temperature,  cold  weather  and  drinking  cold 
water  will  lower  it. 

Mucuous  Membrane. — In  health  the  visible  mucous  membranes  are 
usually  a pale  reddish  color,  and  when  inflamed,  they  are  a bright  red. 
In  collapse,  internal  hemorrhage,  impoverished  or  bloodless  conditions  of 
the  body  the  membranes  are  pale.In  indigestion,  that  lining  the  mouth  may 
appear  coated;  if  irritated,  excessively  moist;  and  if  the  hog  is  feverish, 
dry.  In  serious  diseases,  especially  febrile  disturbances,  secretions  may 
accumulate  around  the  margins  of  the  eyelids  and  the  eyes  appear  dull. 

Skin, — Healthy  hogs  should  have  a smooth,  rather  heavy,  glossy  coat 
and  the  skin  feel  mellow  and  soft.  When  the  skin  loses  its  elasticity, 
becomes  hard,  rigid  and  scurvy  and  the  hair  rough  and  harsh,  it  in- 
dicates a lack  of  nutrition  and  an  unhealthy  condition  of  the  body.  When 
the  coat  is  thin  or  the  hog  affected  with  external  parasites,  irritation  from 
the  sun  and  parasites  may  cause  it  to  become  greatly  changed. 

Excretions. — The  character  of  the  excretions  from  the  kidneys  and 
bowels  become  modified  in  some  diseases,  and  should  be  considered  in 
making  a diganosis. 


78 


Nervous  System. — The  state  of  the  nervous  system  is  indicated  by  dull-  ’ 
ness,  excitably,  or  delirium.  The  hog  may  stagger,  walk  stiffly,  drop 
the  head,  turn  the  head  to  one  side,  walk  in  a circle,  have  convulsions  or 
show  paralysis  of  a part  of  the  whole  body,  as  a result  of  nerve  involo- 
ment.  These  symptoms  may  occur  as  an  involvment  in  several  diseases, 
or  arise  from  primary  affections  of  the  nervous  system, 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  MEDICINE. 

The  diffrent  methods  of  giving  medicine  are  as  follows;  (a)  by  way  of 
the  mouth,  in  the  feed  or  as  a drench;  (b)  by  injection  into  the  tissues 
beneath  the  skin;  (c)  by  rubbing  into  the  skin;  (d)  by  the  air  passages 
and  lungs;  (e)  by  the  rectum. 

By  way  of  the  mouth. — Hogs  possess  a rather  simple  digestive  tract, 
and  are  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of  drugs  when  given  in  the  feed  or 
as  a drench.  , 

If  the  hog  is  not  too  sick  to  eat  and  the  drug  does  not  possess  an  un- 
pleasant taste,  it  can  be  given  in  the  feed.  If  soluble,  milk  can  be  used; 
if  insoluble,  ground  feed  is  to  be  preferred.  In  all  cases  the  medicine 
must  be  well  mixed  with  the  feed.  When  a large  number  are  to  be  dosed 
it  is  best  to  separate  them  into  lots  of  ten  and  feed  each  lot  separately. 
When  this  is  done,  there  is  greater  certainty  of  each  getting  the  proper 
dose  and  the  danger  from  overdosing  is  avoided.  In  the  case  of  young 
pigs,  we  can  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  some  drugs  are  excreted  in 
the  milk,  and  administer  the  drug  to  the  mother. 

Drenching  a hog  is  not  difflcult  it  quietly  and  easily  managed.  A 
large  herd  can  be  drenched  quite  rapidly  if  driven  into  a small  pen,  as 
the  hogs  will  be  in  such  close  quarters  that  they  can  not  get  away.  To 
secure  the  hog  while  drenching  it,  a noose  of  sash  cord  or  a small  rope 
can  be  placed  around  the  upper  jaw  well  back  toward  the  angles  of  the 
lips,  and  the  medicine  administered  with  a metallic  dose  syringe.  Some- 
times wfflen  the  drench  is  bulky,  and  the  hog  hard  to  hold,  it  is  necessary 
to  elevate  the  head  and  raise  the  fore  feet  off  the  ground.  For  this  pur- 
pose a pulley  and  a rope  wire  stretcher  is  recommended.  It  should  be 
hung  in  some  convenient  place  in  the  pen  and  the  animal  secured  in  the 
usual  way  by  placing  a noose  over  the  upper  jaw.  The  rope  is  then  thrown 


79 


over  the  hook  in  the  lower  pulley  and  the  hog  drawn  up  until  it  is  almost 
off  its  feet.  The  drench  must  not  be  administered  until  the  hog  is  quiet 
and  well  under  control,  as  there  is  some  danger  of  the  medicine  getting 
into  the  air  passages  and  doing  harm.  If  there  is  danger  of  the  hogs  get- 
ting mixed  in  the  operation,  as  soon  as  one  is  drenched  it  can  be  marked 
with  paint. 

Drugs,  when  soluble,  are  best  given  in  water  or  milk;  when  in- 
soluble, in  syrup  or  oil.  Instead  of  a syringe  a long  necked  bottle,  or  a 
tunnel  with  rubber  tubing  and  an  iron  nozzle  can  be  used. 

By  injecting  into  the  tissues  beneath  the  skin. — This  method  of  admin- 
istration is  suitable  when  the  drug  is  non-irritating,  the  dose  small  and 
when  prompt,  energetic  effects  are  required.  The  needle  and  hypodermic 
syringe  should  be  sterile,  and  the  place  of  injection  washed  with  an  an- 
tiseptic wash  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  an  abscess.  The  point 
of  injection  should  be  where  the  skin  is  thin,  as  the  flank,  belly,  ear,  or 
inside  of  thigh.  The  needle  is  introduced  through  the  skin  and  the  medi- 
cine injected  beneath  it  by  slowly  pushing  the  piston.  In  the  case  of  fat 
hogs  the  injection  should  go  into  the  muscular  tissue;  otherwise  it  will 
not  be  absorbed  promptly. 

By  the  way  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs. — This  method  of  administra- 
tion is  practiced  but  little,  and  usually  for  a local  effect  on  the  respiratory 
organs  only.  The  hog  or  hogs,  are  put  into  a tight  enclosure  and  allowed 
to  inhale  vapors  of  the  drug.  Drugs  suitable  for  this  purpose  are  tur- 
pentine, creolin,  eucalyptol,  sulphur,  etc.  Turpentine  is  the  one  most 
used  and  is  easily  disseminated  by  pouring  on  hot  water  or  by  putting  an 
ounce  or  two  on  hot  bricks.  Care  must  be  exercised  when  treating  hogs 
in  this  way,  as  they  may  suffer  from  lack  of  air. 

By  the  way  of  the  rectum. — Enemas  or  clysters  are  usually  given  for  a 
local  effect  on  the  rectum  or  to  accelerate  the  action  of  a purgative.  To 
administer  an  enema  a fountain  syringe  is  best.  The  nozzle  of  the 
syringe  should  be  smeared  with  vaseline  before  introducing  it  into  the 
rectum.  When  the  injection  is  large,  it  is  well  to  elevate  the  hind  parts 
of  the  hog.  A gallon  or  more  can  be  introduced  into  the  intestines  in 
this  way.  A funnel  and  rubber  tubing,  or  an  ordinary  syringe  can  be 
used  ^or  this  purpose. 


8U 


PREVENTIVE  TREATMENT. 

Preventive  treatment  is  recognized  'by  all  successful  hog  raisers  as 
the  most  successful  and  economical  method  of  combating  disease,  and  it 
is  along  this  line  that  the  greatest  attention  should  be  directed.  Disease 
Is  best  combated  by  correcting  the  faults  in  breeding  and  feeding,  by 
good  hygienic  surroundings,  by  ample  exercise,  fresh  air  and  sunlight, 
clean  yards  and  pens,  and  the  free  use  of  disinfectants. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 

STOMATITIS. 

Sore  Mouth. 

Causes. — Putrid  or  decomposing  slops,  irritating  or  hot  foods,  drenches, 
the  water  in  foul  wallows,  especially  that  containing  much  seepage  from 
the  manure  pile,  are  among  the  common  causes  of  simple  stomatitis  in 
swine.  Decayed  teeth,  irritation  from  awns  or  beards  of  grasses,  as  barley 
and  wheat,  in  the  feed,  and  rope  loops  used  in  catching  hogs  may  also 
cause  it.  Circumscribed  inflamed  patches  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  are  sometimes  seen  in  hog  cholera,  swine  plague,  anthrax,  actin- 
omycosis, and  other  diseases. 


Papilloma  of  the  tongue.  A warty  growth  seen  on  the  tongue  in  rare  cases. 


81 


Symptoms. — The  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  is  hot,  dry  and  red 
in  appearance.  Ropy  saliva  dribbles  from  the  corners.  The  animal 
champs  the  jaws  and  seems  to  find  relief  in  running  its  nose  into 
cold  water.  There  is  a disagreeable  odor  from  the  mouth.  Mastication 
is  painful  and  the  hog  shows  a disposition  to  eat  sparingly.  Soft  liquid 
food  is  preferred;  hard  food  is  imperfectly  masticated  and  may  drop  from 
the  mouth.  Recovery  usually  takes  place  in  a few  days. 

Treatment. — If  due  to  irritating  foods,  the  cause  must  be  removed. 
Hard  food  should  be  withheld  and  nothing  but  sloppy  foods  be  fed  to  the 
animal  when  in  this  condition.  Plenty  of  cool,  clean  water  should  be 
placed  where  the  hog  can  drink  and  run  its  nose  into  it.  The  medicinal 
treatment  consists  in  washing  the  mouth  twice  a day  with  an  astringent 
wash  or  antiseptic  lotion.  ' A four  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  boric  acid 
or  alum  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  coal  tar  washes  are  also'  serv- 
iceable. 

DISEASED  TEETH. 

The  hog  eats  all  sorts  of  objects  and  cracks  nuts,  coal,  gravel,  etc., 
upon  the  teeth,  so  that  when  the  hog  becomes  old  he  is  almost  sure  to 
have  a bad  mouth.  Hogs  sold  for  stock  purpose  are  seldom  affected  in 
this  way.  Boars  sometimes  hav^e  very  long  tusks. 

Symptonjs. — The  symptoms  of  some  derangement  of  the  teeth  are  pain 
upon  grinding,  holding  the  head  to  one  side  while  eating,  insufficient 
mastication,  as  seen  in  the  half  or  whole  grain  passed,  and  inability  to 
shell  corn  from  the  ear. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  to  give  largely  ground  or  sloppy  food, 
and  pasture.  Cut  off  with  dentist’s  cutters  all  long  tusks,  but  do  not  knock 
them  out  with  a punch  or  cold  chisel,  as  the  latter  method  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  crack  the  teeth  and  fracture  the  jaw. 

BLACK  TEETH.  . 

This  condition  is  frequently  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  veteri- 
narian, but  as  yet  we  have  no  satisfactory  explanation  to  offer  for  their 
presence.  They  are  also  found  in  health,  as  may  be  observed  in  heads  at 
the  slaughter  house.  Undoubtedly  too  much  stress  has  been  laid  upon 
this  condition.  We  are  not  inclined  to  attribute  any  disease  to  this  con- 
dition upon  the  present  evidence.  In  very  young  pigs,  when  this  condition 


82 


is  most  frequently  seen,  there  may  be  very  long,  sharp  teeth  present  which 
it  would  be  better  to  cut  off.  At  the  time  of  dentition,  the  temporary 
tooth  may  be  present  as  a dark  shell  and  the  gums  be  made  sore  and  cause 
the  pig  to  hold  the  mouth  open,  to  salivate,  and  to  refuse  food. 

DEPRAVED  APPETITE. 

Causes. — Depraved  appetite  is  due  to  a variety  of  causes  and  may 
occur  as  a symptom  in  different  diseases.  Faulty  rations,  especially  if 
deficient  in  alkaline  and  earthy  salts,  lack  of  exercise,  digestive  disorders 
and  a nervous  condition  may  cause  it. 

Symptoms. — The  hog  shows  an  inclination  to  eat  all  sorts  of  indiges- 
tible substances,  earth,  sand,  feces,  bristles,  rotten  wood,  etc.  Sometimes 
they  are  quarrelsome  and  may  'attack  one  of  their  numebr  and  kill  it. 
Sows  will  eat  their  young,  usually  at  the  time  of  birth.  When  thus  affec- 
ted they  do  not  thrive  as  they  should  and  may  become  quite  thin. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  chiefiy  preventive,  and  consists  in  sup- 
plying to  the  ration  whatever  elements  are  wanting.  The  addition  of 
charcoal,  salt,  wood  ashes,  etc.,  sometimes  answer  the  purpose  well  when 
the  other  ingredients  seem  to  be  about  right.  When  the  affection  is  due  to 
chronic  indigestion,  they  should  be  given  the  proper  treatment. 

GASTRITIS. 

Acute  Indigestion. 

Causes. — Overloading  the  stomach  and  spoiled  foods,  especially  putrid 
swill,  are  common  causes  of  indigestion.  Alkaline  washing  powders  and 
soaps,  irritate  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  may  bring  about  this  con- 
dition. Poor  care,  exposure  and  intestinal  worms  may  also  cause  it. 

S3unptoms. — The  hog  refuses  food,  is  generally  restless  and  may  have 
colicy  pains.  It  usually  wanders  off  by  itself,  acts  dull,  grunts,  lies  down 
in  a quiet  place  or  stands  with  the  back  arched  and  abdomen  held  tense. 
It  seems  to  like  to  hide  itself  in  the  bedding,  litter  around  the  manure 
heap  or  straw  stack,  and  in  the  grass  or  weeds.  When  vomiting  occurs 
early  in  the  attack,  recovery  usually  takes  place  in  a short  time.  Some- 
times the  animal  has  a diarrhea.  The  body  temperature  may  be  higher 
than  normal. 


83 


Treatment. — Feeds  that  will  irritate  the  stomach  or  intestines  should 
be  avoided.  It  is  desirable  to  induce  vomiting  as  soon  as  possible  by  giv- 
ing an  emetic  of  ipecacuan,  Uwenty  or  thirty  grains  in  a little  warm 
water).  This  can  be  followea  by  two  or  three  ounces  of  castor  oil.  The 
hog  should  be  kept  in  the  pen  and  fed  on  easily  digested  ration. 

CHRONIC  INDIGESTION. 

Causes. — When  the  causes  of  acute  indigestion  act  for  some  time 
either  in  an  intermittent  or  continuous  manner,  it  will  terminate  in  the 
chronic  form. 

Symptoms. — In  the  beginning  these  may  be  the  same  as  in  the  acute 
form.  The  hog  presents  an  unthrifty  appearance  and  may  become  quite 
thin.  Pigs  grow  slowly  and  may  become  badly  stunted.  We  may  observe 
constipation  and  diarrhea  alternating. 

Treatment. — Clean  quarters  and  a well  balanced,  easily  digested  ration 
should  be  provided.  The  hog  should  have  access  to  plenty  of  common 
salt  and  charcoal.  As  a tonic  the  following  mixture  can  be  given  in  the 
feed;  bicarbonate  of  soda  (two  ounces),  powdered  gentian  (three  drams), 
sulphate  of  soda,  (three  ounces).  The  dose  is  about  one  teaspoonful  twice 
daily.  To  check  the  diarrhea,  give  nitrate  of  bismuth  in  dram  or  halt 
dram  doses.  If  constipated,  a cathartic  of  calomel  (ten  to  twenty  grains) 
will  give  relief. 

GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 
fnfla7umation  of  the  Stomach  and  hitestines. 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach  cannot  be  readily  distinguished  from 
that  of  the  intestines  and  vice  versa.  Frequently  both  are  inflamed  at 
the  same  time.  It  is  therefore  more  convenient  to  discuss  both  under 
the  head  of  gastro-enteritis. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  largely  due  to  unhygenic  conditions.  Some 
people  seem  to  think  that  a hog  can  eat  anything  and  take  poison  with 
impunity,  and  as  a result,  it  frequently  suffers  from  ignorant  practice  in 
the  feeding,  care,  and  giving  of  drugs.  The  causes  of  gastro-enteritis  are 
much  the  same  as  in  indigestion,  only  they  act  more  intensely.  We  must 


84 


especially  mention  dirty,  filthy  yards  and  pens,  decomposed  and  over 
kept  foods.  When  hogs  are  kept  in  filthy  quarters,  the  snout  and  'food 
become  soiled  with  all  sorts  of  microbes.  These  enter  the  digestive  tract 
along  with  the  food,  irritate  the  lining  membrane  and  pave  the  way  for 
those  germs  that  would  otherwise  prove  harmless.  Toxic  or  poisonous 
substances,  as  salt  brine,  washing  powders,  dish  water,  etc.,  that  are 
frequently  found  in  the  swill,  may  cause  it. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  shows  evidence  of  severe  abdominal  pain. 
The  back  is  arched,  ears  droop  and  the  abdomen  is  tucked  up.  When  the 
abdomen  is  pressed  on,  it  will  cause  the  hog  to  fiinch  with  pain.  Pain  is 
manifested  by  grunting,  squealing,  restlessness,  champing  and  grinding 
of  the  teeth.  The  body  temperature  is  elevated.  If  the  offending  matter 
is  fermentive  or  obstructive,  there  is  bloating.  When  the  stomach  is  in- 
volved, vomiting  is  a prominent  symptom.  The  infiammation  at  first 
causes  an  intense  thirst,  and  the  bowels  are  constipated.  Later  a diarrhea 
is  present.  The  hog  becomes  very  dull  and  weak,  and  is  generally  seen 
lying  down  in  a bed  that  it  has  rooted  for  itself  in  the  litter. 

There  is  no  rule  as  to  the  duration  of  the  disease.  It  may  last  but  a 
short  time  or  continue  for  a week  or  more. 

Lesions. — The  post  mortem  appearance  is  a congested  and  infiamed 
condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  intestines,  sometimes  in- 
volving the  deeper  layers  of  the  wall  and  the  peritoneum;  the  contents 
are  mucous  and  fiakey  -in  character.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  reddened 
and  thickened,  and  it  the  inflammatory  changes  are  due  to  a slow  in- 
fection there  may  be  small  pouch  like  (follicular)  ulcers  in  the  mucous 
membrane. 

Treatment. — The  hog  should  be  kept  in  clean  quarters.  If  vomiting 
has  not  occurred,  the  offensive  material  should  be  gotten  rid  of  by  giving 
an  emetic  of  ipecacuan  (twenty  or  thirty  grains  in  a little  warm  water). 
This  can  be  followed  by  a laxative  of  castor  oil,  one  or  two  ounces,  or 
calomel  in  from  ten  to  thirty  grain  doses  can  be  given.  To  relieve  the 
pain  a teaspoonful  of  laudanum  in  about  the  same  amount  of  linseed  oil 
can  be  given.  Rectal  injections  of  soapsuds  may  be  -necessary  to  relieve 
the  constipation.  If  diarrhea  is  a symptom  of  the  disease,  nitrate  of  bis- 
muth in  dram  or  half  dram  doses  can  be  given  two  or  three  times  a day. 
As  a counter-irritant,  oil  of  turpentine  may  be  applied  to  the  walls  of 


85 


the  abdomen  and  covered  up  until  the  skin  is  quite  red.  The  best  diet 
is  well  boiled,  thin  gruels.  This  should  be  fed  until  the  hog  is  able  to 
digest  the  ordinary  ration. 

TOXIC  GASTRO-ENTERITIS. 

POISONING. 

Meat  brine  and  washing  powders  are  the  most  common  causes  of 
poisoning  in  swine,  and  are  always  accompanied  by  an  inflammation  of 
the  intestines  and  stomach. 

POISONING  BY  MEAT  BRINE. 

Brine  from  meat  barrels  and  flsh  kegs  is  sometimes  emptied  where 
hogs  have  access  to  it  and  when  eaten  will  cause  an  intense  inflammation 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Hogs  will  not  eat  too  much  salt  if  they 
have  access  to  it  at  all  times,  but  the  meaty  taste  of  meat  brine  probably 
adds  to  their  desire  for  it,  and  is  eaten  in  large  quantities. 

Symptoms. — These  develop  in  a short  time.  The  animal  is  restless  at 
first,  will  run  from  one  place  to  another,  lie  down  and  get  up  again,  stamp 
the  feet  and  squeal.  Vomiting  nearly  always  occurs  and  a profuse  watery 
diarrhea  will  come  on  if  the  hog  lives  long  enough.  Convulsions  occur, 
during  which  it  will  throw  itself  around  violently  and  froth  at  the  mouth. 
The  intervals  between  the  convulsions  become  shorter  and  shorter  as 
death  approaches.  The  posterior  parts  are  paralyzed  and  the  animal  will 
drag  itself  from  place  to  place.  The  duration  of  the  attack  varies  from 
a couple  of  hours  to  several  days.  The  animal  is  sometimes  suspected 
of  being  mad  unless  the  cause  be  known. 

Lesions. — Upon  post  mortem  the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  and 
Intestines  is  found  'loosened,  sometimes  in  masses,  and  there  is  intense 
congestion  of  the  entire  wall  and  the  peritoneum  in  contact  with  it. 

Treatment. — The  hog  should  be  given  all  the  water  it  will  drink. 
Linseed  oil  in  large  doses  can  be  given.  Flaxseed  tea  is  also  useful.  To 
quiet  the  pain,  at  intervals,  a teaspoonful  of  laudanum  can  be  given. 
Treatiqjent  is  seldom  successful. 

POISONING  FROM  WASHING  POWDERS. 

It  Is  a common  practice  to  save  the  dish  water  as  slop  for  pigs.  Hogs 
fed  on  such  slops  often  sicken  and  die,  the  symptoms  and  course  of  the 


2 


86 


disease  being  very  much  like  cholera  and  are  frequently  confused  with 
this  disease. 

Symptoma — These  are  diarrhea,  vomiting,  fever,  lameness,  partial 
paralysis,  nervous  disturbance  and  death.  The  course  of  the  disease  is 
from  a few  hours  to  several  days,  apparently  depending  on  the  amount 
of  alkali  ingested  at  one  time.  Death  ‘occurs  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Lesions. — Upon  post  mortem  examination,  the  lymphatic  glands  along 
the  bowel  are  found  swollen  and  dark  colored.  The  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  intestines  is  pale  and  shiny.  Other  internal  organs  are  also 
involved. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  wholly  preventive  and  consists  in  avoid- 
ing the  feeding'  of  slops  containing  these  alkalies. 

POISONING  BY  FEEDING  COTTON  SEED. 

Fatal  results  follow  the  feeding  of  cotton  seed,  whether  given  ground, 
roasted,  raw,  boiled  or  as  droppings  from  cattle.  Poisoning,  however,  is 
not  always  observed  in  hogs  following  cattle  fed  on  this  food  stuff.  The 
cause  of  the  trouble  has  not  been  discovered,  all  attempts  at  getting  an 
active  extract  from  the  seed  having  proven  unsuccessful. 

Symptoms. — The  evil  effects  are  not  noticed  until  several  weeks  after 
using  it  as  a food.  In  cases  that  have  been  observed  throughout  the 
whole  course,  there  is  first,  dullness,  staggering  gait,  labored  breathing, 
spasmotic  in  character  and  usually  called  thumps,  loss  of  sight,  restless- 
ness, walking  in  a circle  and  running  into  obstructions,  lying  down  fiat 
on  the  belly,  and  finally  sudden  exhaustion  and  death.  In  the  majority 
of  cases,  the.  animals  are  found  dead  in  their  beds  or  pens  ten  or  twelve 
hours  after  they  had  apparently  been  in  the  best  of  health. 

Lesions. — A post  mortem  examination  gives  no  definite  lesions  and 
fails  to  show  any  effect  that  might  be  attributed  to  the  hulls. 

Treatment. — The  only  treatment  that  can  be  recommended  is  pre- 
ventive, avoid  using  cotton  seed  in  any  form  as  food  for  hogs  for  more 
than  two  weeks  at  a time. 

ERGOT  POISONING. 

Causes. — Hogs  may  be  poisoned  by  eating  the  screenings  from  the 
thresher  or  elevator  that  contains  considerable  quantities  of  this  fungus. 


87 


It  may  possibly  be  produced  on  psture,  particularly  rye  pasture.  This 
fungus  occurs  principally  on  the  heads  of  rye.  The  disease  is  not  com- 
mon and  when  reported  in  this  State,  it  has  almost  always  been  associated 
with  the  feeding  of  screenings  and  boughten  mill  feed  containing  large 
amounts  of  the  screenings. 

Symptoms. — These  are  lameness  like  rheumatism,  local  swelling  and 
tenderness,  especially  about  the  joints  of  the  feet  although  not  confined 
to  that  region.  Gangrenous  spots  occur  upon  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  extremities,  especially  the  ears  and  tail,  loose  their  natural  warmth 
and  vitality.  Deep  red  spots  that  become  black  and  gangrenous  appear 
on  the  skin.  The  mouth  may  become  sore.  Parts  of  the  ears  and  tail 
will  crack  and  drop  off  and  pieces  may  come  out  where  gangrene  occurs 
on  other  parts  of  the  body.  There  is  swelling  of  the  eyes,  loss  of  appe- 
tite and  unsteadiness  in  standing  or  walking.  In  extreme  cases  the  hog 
may  loose  one  or  more  feet  before  dying.  The  disease  may  be  confused 
with  blood  poisoning.  The  occurrence  in  several  individuals  at  the  same 
time  will  aid  in  making  an  early  diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Cut  off  the  poisonous  feed.  Supply  a soft,  easily  digestible 
diet.  Give  iodide  of  potash  in  ten  to  fifteen  grain  doses  twice  daily  in  slop. 

EFFECT  OF  EATING  WHEAT  AND  BARLEY  BEARDS. 

Frequently  when  hogs  are  turned  on  wheat  or  barley  stubble  some 
will  die.  The  symptoms  which  they  present  will  vary.  In  some  cases 
it  will  be  an  intense  sore  mouth,  in  others  a general  bowel  disturbance, 
and  again  in  others,  loud  and  difiScult  breathing. 

Lesions. — Post  mortem  lesions,  show  beards  in  the  mouth,  stomach 
and  windpipe.  A roll  of  beards  may  form  and  get  down  by  the  side,  or 
at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  penetrate  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
animal  cannot  get  rid  of  them  and  the  parts  become  intensely  swollen  and 
inflamed,  interfering  with  eating  and  starvation  may  occur.  Plugs  of  beards 
may  lodge  at  any  point  between  the  larynx  and  bronchi,  producing  loud 
distressed  breathing  and  coughing.  In  the  stomach  there  may  be  a slight 
inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane,  and  if  the  beards  lodge  in  the 
membrane  and  do  not  soften  and  pass  away,  the  Inflammation  is  severe. 

Treatment.— When  the  mouth  becomes  inflammed,  the  treatment  Is 


88 


the  same  as  in  simple  stomatitis.  Plugs  of  beards  when  lodged  in  this 
part  of  the  digestive  tract  can  be  removed.  If  lodged  in  the  air  passages 
or  stomach,  they  cannot  be  removed,  and  the  animal  dies  from  suffocation 
or  an  inflammation  of  the  parts. 

EFFECT  OF  EATING  COCKLE-BURRS. 

Numerous  articles  have  appeared  in  the  swine  breeders’  journals  and 
agricultural  papers  indicating  that  young  cockle-burrs  were  poisonous  to 
hogs  and  calves.  While  the  cockle-burr  is  young  and  only  three  or  four 
inches  high  it  is  very  fleshy  and  tender,  and  relished  by  stock.  The 
claims  of  poisoning  of  stock  attracted  suflacient  attention  that  the  In- 
diana Experiment  Station  made  a chemical  examination  and  a feeding 
test  to  determine  the  poisonous  properties,  but  in  both  the  results  were 
negative.  The  young  plants,  stripped  of  the  burrs,  were  fed  to  calves, 
pigs,  rabbits  and  guinea  pigs.  These  were  allowed  all  they  would  eat. 
In  no  case  was  any  untoward  effect  noticed.  We  have  been  called  upon 
to  post-mortem  some  animals  claimed  to  have  died  from  such  poisoning, 
and  in  all  cases  death  was  due  to  the  burrs.  A few  burrs  would  be  swal- 
lowed with  the  young  plants,  and  their  horny  prickles  would  irritate  the 
stomach  wall  and  cause  inflammation,  which  Anally  terminated  in  death. 
In  three  cases  the  burrs  lodged  in  the  throat  and  could  not  be  expelled. 

SCOURS  IN  YOUNG  PIGS. 

Causes. — Young  pigs  kept  in  damp,  dark,  dirty  pens  are  more  suscep- 
tiable  to  this  disease  than  if  kept  in  clean  pens  and  allowed  plenty  of 
exercise,  pure  air  and  sunshine.  Scours  is  often  caused  within  the  first 
few  days  after  birth  by  the  feverish  condition  of  the  mother  affecting 
the  character  of  the  milk.  Fermented  foods,  slops,  moldy  corn,  etc.,  when 
fed  to  the  sow  will  also  cause  her  to  give  toxic  milk.  Chilly  damp 
weather,  getting  out  in  the  wet  grass  when  young,  and  artificial  feeding 
are  most  frequent  causes.  Some  outbreaks  seem  to  be  due  to  a germ,  as 
Is  the  case  in  calves  and  lambs. 

Symptoms. — These  may  set  in  so  soon  after  birth  that  it  would  seem 
as  though  the  pigs  were  born  with  the  affection.  When  delayed  until 


89 


the  pig  is  a few  days  or  a few  weeks  old,  the  scours  are  generally  pre- 
ceded by  constipation.  The  symptoms  of  the  trouble  are  loose  evacua- 
tions, grayish  in  color,  which  become  more  and  more  watery  as  the  dis- 
ease progresses.  The  young  animal  may  show  some  evidence  of  abdominal 
pain.  The  tail  and  hindparts  soon  become  soiled  with  the  discharges. 
The  appetite  may  be  good  at  the  beginning,  but  is  gradually  lost  and  the 
pig  becomes  dull  and  weak.  The  back  is  arched,  hair  rough,  and  there  is 
an  indisposition  to  move  about.  When  the  symptoms  set  in  soon  after 
birth,  the  disease  is  more  apt  to  prove  fatal  than  if  the  pigs  are  several 
weeks  old. 

Treatment. — Scours  being  a disease  due  largely  to  bad  dietetics  and 
hygiene,  the  preventive  treatment  is  of  more  importance  than  the  me- 
dicinal. This  consists  in  correcting  errors  in  feeding  and  care.  At  the 
time  of  farrowing  the  sow  should  be  fed  a light,  easily  digested  ration, 
the  pen  kept  clean  and  dry  and  the  pigs  allowed  plenty  of  exercise  and 
pure  air.  If  the  scours  are  due  to  a feverish  condition  of  the  mother  or 
to  irritating  food,  she  should  be  given  two  or  three  ounces  of  castor 
oil.  To  check  the  scours  in  the  pigs,  a few  drops  of  laudanum  can  be 
placed  on  the  tongue,  or  a large  dose  (from  one-half  to  one  tablespoonful) 
administered  to  the  sow.  This  should  be  repeated  if  necessary. 

DIARRHEA.  SCOURS.  DYSENTERY. 

Causes. — Sudden  changes  in  the  feed,  especially  to  green  feed  will 
frequently  cause  it.  Diarrhea  may  occur  as  a symptom  in  inflammatory 
diseases  of  the  digestive  tract. 

Symptoms. — Diarrhea  in  hogs  is  characterized  by  frequent  and  rather 
fluid  exacuations. 

Treatment. — When  scours  occurs  as  a symptom  of  disease,  the  cause 
must  be  removed  before  we  can  hope  to  treat  it  successfully.  In  all  cases 
it  is  best  to  give  a cathartic;  castor  oil  (one  to  three  ounces)  or  calomel 
(one  to  ten  grains.)  This  should  be  followed  by  laudanum  (half  a 
tablespoonful),  prepared  chalk  (one-half  to  one  tablespoonful)  or  nitrate 
of  bismuth  (one  teaspoonful).  When  any  one  of  these  drugs  is  used,  the 
dose  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary. 

CONSTIPATION. 

Causes, — Constipation  is  caused  by  dry  feed,  lack  of  water,  fever. 


90 


paralysis,  or  it  may  occur  as  a symptom  of  inflammation  of  the  intestines. 

Symptoms. — This  is  the  opposite  condition  from  diarrhea. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  giving  a cathartic  of  castor  or  linseed  oil. 
Epsom  salts  may  also  be  given.  The  action  of  the  cathartic  can  he  as- 
sisted by  an  enema.  Sloppy  food  should  he  fed. 

PERITONITIS. 

INFLAMMATION  OP  THE  PERITONEUM. 

Causes. — Hogs  are  not  as  subject  to  peritonitis  as  most  other  domestic 
animals.  It  results  from  the  extension  of  the  inflammation  from  the  in- 
testines or  other  internal  organs.  Injuries  to  the  walls  of  the  abdomen, 
exposure  to  cold,  and  such  operations  as  spaying  and  castrating  may 
cause  it. 

Symptoms. — These  resemble  those  seen  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 
The  history  of  the  case  may  help  us  in  the  diagnosis.  The  hog  is  feverish 
and  dull,  the  back  is  arched,  abdominal  walls  rigid  and  the  breathing 
short  and  quickened.  There  are  indications  of  abdominal  pain. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  mainly  preventive.  Such  operations  as 
castration,  spaying,  etc.,  should  be  performed  under  antiseptic  precau- 
tions. Wounds  involving  the  abdomen  are  serious  and  should  be  care- 
fully treated.  Medicinal  treatment  is  of  little  use. 

DISEAJ^ES  OF  THE  LIVER. 

Yellows.  Jaundice. 

This  is  not  a disease  in  itself  but  rather  a symptom  of  disease,  and 
is  frequently  associted  with  the  following  diseases;  gall  stones,  parasitic 
diseases  of  the  liver,  inflammation  of  the  intestines  and  bile  duct,  and 
congestion  and  inflammation  of  the  liver.  It  is  difficult  to  diagnose  liver 
diseases  in  the  hog,  and  quite  impossible  to  differentiate  one  from  another. 
For  this  reason  it  is  best  to  discuss  all  liver  diseases  under  the  one  head, 
jaundice. 

Causes. — Gall  stones  are  occasionally  found  in  the  hog  and  resemble 
fine  sand  in  appearance.  They  may,  however,  occur  as  small  calculi.  The 
causes  of  gall  stones  are  concentration  of  the  bile,  its  becoming  infected 
by  bacteria,  lack  of  exercise  and  over  feeding. 

Liver  flukes  and  round  worms  may  obstruct  the  bile  duct  as  they 


91 


pass  up  from  the  intestines..  The  former  parasite  is  rare  in  this  country 
and  is  seldom  the  cause  of  liver  diseases  in  hogs.  The  round  worms  are 
sometimes  found  in  the  gall  duct. 

Inflammation  of  the  bile  duct  may  occur  as  a complication  of  indi- 
gestion or  a catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  intestines.  The  main  causes, 
however,  are  overfeeding,  lack  of  exercise  and  decomposed  food. 


Pigmented  liver.  The  liver  is  filled  with  dark  spots. 


Inflammation  of  the  liver  is  frequently  met  with  in  infectious  diseases. 
It  may  occur  as  a complication  of  indigestion.  Certain  micro-organisms 
entering  the  digestive  tract  with  the  food  and  finding  their  way  to  the 
liver  may  cause  it  to  become  inflamed. 

Symptoms. — Any  condition  raising  the  pressure  in  the  bile  ducts  or 
lowering  the  pressure  in  the  blood  vessels  of  the  liver  will  cause  the  bile 
to  be  taken  up  by  the  circulation  and  carried  to  the  diflierent  tissues  of 
the  body,  staining  them  a yellow  color.  This  is  quite  noticeable  in  the 
areolar  tissue  beneath  the  skin  and  in  the  fat,  a condition  sometimes  met 
with  in  apparently  healthy  hogs  killed  in  the  abattoir.  A staining  of  the 
visible  mucous  membranes  and  the  skin  cannot  well  be  observed  in  the 
hog.  Sometimes  the  coloring  matter  of  the  bile  is  present  in  the  urine 
and  the  normal  function  of  the  kidneys  is  disturbed.  Constipation  usually 


92 


occurs  and  the  feces  nave  a more  disagreeable  odor  than  normal.  When 
occurring  as  a complication  of  other  diseases,  the  liver  symptoms  are  usu- 
ally overshadowed  by  the  original  disease. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  about  the  same  as  in  indigestion.  As 
a cathartic,  calomel  can  be  administered  in  from  one  to  ten  grain  doses 
and  repeated  every  other  day  for  a few  days. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  APPARATUS. 

CONGESTION  OF  THE  KIDNEYS. 

Causes. — Congestion  of  the  kidneys  as  a result  of  injury  is  not  un- 
common in  hogs.  Blows  and  kicks  in  the  region  of  the  back,  or  injuries 
occurring  as  a result  of  their  piling  up  on  each  other,  are  among  the 
common  causes.  Exposure,  and  wet,  cold  quarters,  as  in  other  domestic 
animals,  may  also  cause  it.  It  may  occur  as  a complication  of  some  in- 
fectious disease. 


Contracted  kidney.  The  kidney  is  reduo  d in  size,  is  lobuiated  and  hard.  It  is  due  to 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  fibrous  structure. 

Symptoms. — The  pig  shows  a disposition  to  lie  down  most  of  the  time. 
The  hind  parts  are  moved  stiffly  and  the  gait  is  stiff  and  straddling.  Urine 
is  passed  frequently  and  in  small  quantities.  It  is  higher  colored  than 
normal  and  may  be  tinged  with  blood.  If  due  to  an  injury,  these  symp- 
toms appear  soon  after  it  has  occurred. 

Treatment. — Preventive  measures  consist  in  avoiding  as  much  as  pos- 
sible conditions  that  may  cause  the  disease.  The  hog  should  be  given  dry, 


93 


comfortable  quarters  and  fed  on  slops.  It  is  well  at  the  beginning  to 
administer  a cathartic  of  castor  oil  (one  to  four  ounces).  Hot  water 
fomentations  may  be  applied  to  the  back  and  loins. 


Tumor  of  the  kidney. 


94 


Enlarged  kidney.  When  cut  through  it  shows  cavities  fillei  with  urine.  Due  to  chronic 

inflammation. 


95 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  KIDNEYS. 

Causes. — These  are  very  much  the  same  as  in  congestion  of  the  kid- 
neys, Irritating  foods,  such  drugs  as  turpentine  given  internally  and 
applied  locally,  and  pathogenic  germs  conveyed  to  the  kidneys  by  the 
circulation,  or  entering  the  kidneys  by  way  of  their  excretory  apparatus 
are  frequent  causes. 

Symptoms. — The  back  of  the  hog  may  be  quite  sensitive  to  pressure. 
When  it  stands,  the  back  is  arched  and  held  stiffly.  The  temperature  may 
be  elevated,  the  respirations  and  pulse  beats  quickened,  and  the  urine 
is  scant  and  highly  colored.  Convulsions  may  occur.  Chronic  inflamma- 
tion of  the  kidneys  may  develop  very  slowly  without  giving  rise  to  any 
noticeable  symptoms  until  the  disease  reaches  the  later  stages.  Large  ab- 
scesses are  occasionally  found  in  the  kidneys  of  hogs  apparently  in  perfect 
health  when  killed. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  and  medicinal  treatment  is  much  the  same 
as  in  congestion  of  the  kidneys.  To  insure  tree  action  of  the  bowels 
small  doses  of  castor  oil  (from  two  to  four  tablespoonfuls)  should  be  ad- 
ministered frequently.  Diuretics  should  also  be  given. 

DISEASE  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

Retention  of  the  urine  and  inflammation  of  the  bladder  (cystitis)  is 
sometimes  met  with'  in  the  hog.  The  retention  of  the  urine  may  be  due 
to  spasms  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  a cystic  or  urethal  calculus,  or  from 
a tumor  pressing  on  the  urethra  and  preventing  the  flow  of  the  urine  from 
the  bladder. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  in  both  diseases  is  to  remove  the  cause 
if  possible.  Inflammation  of  the  bladder  is  due  to  retention  of  the  urine 
and  irritation  from  bacteria.  To  relieve  the  irritation,  chlorate  of  potas- 
sium in  from  fifteen  to  thirty  grain  doses  can  be  given  twice  daily. 
Pressure  on  the  urethra  by  the  tumor  can  be  relieved  by  an  operation  in 
some  cases.  Keep  the  animal  quiet  and  feed  mostly  sloppy  food. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  SPLEEN. 

Inflammation  of  the  spleen  is  frequently  mentioned  In  the  older  works 
on  veterinary  medicine,  and  an  elaborate  line  of  symptoms  is  sometimes 
given  in  connection  with  the  disease. 


96 


Hypertrophy,  atrophy  and  rupture  of  the  spleen  is  recognized  only  by 
a post-mortem  examination.  These  conditions  may  arise  from  an  injury 
or  the  extension  of  inflammation  from  neighboring  parts.  Splenic  hyper- 
trophy is  frequently  seen  in  connection  with  high  feeding  and  infectious 
diseases.  Tumors  of  the  spleen  may  cause  it  to  become  larger  than  normal. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  TRACT. 

NASAL  CATARRH. 

Cold  in  the  Head. 

Causes. — Exposure  to  cold,  especially  if  in  an  overheated  condition  or 
when  the  body  is  wet  by  rain,  is  the  most  common  cause  of  catarrh.  Hogs 
overcrowded  in  pens  or  allowed  to  sleep  around  straw  stacks  or  manure 
heaps  are  apt  to  suffer  as  a result  of  overheating  and  becoming  chilled, 
or  by  irritation  from  the  dust  and  noxious  gases  generated  under  such 
conditions.  This  is  especially  true  during  the  cold,  wet  weather  when  they 
pile  up  to  keep  warm. 

Symptoms. — The  hog  may  act  dull,  the  body  temperature  may  be 
elevated,  and  the  eyes  appear  red  and  watery.  The  nasal  mucous  membrane 
becomes  red  and  dry  and  the  hog  sneezes  frequently.  This  dry  stage  lasts 
for  a short  time  and  is  followed  by  a watery  discharge  from  both  nostrils, 
and  in  the  more  severe  cases  this  is  succeeded  by  a thick  whitish  or  yel- 
lowish discharge.  If  this  continues  for  some  time  the  mucous  membrane 
becomes  markedly  changed  and  ulcers  form.  Severe  outbreaks  are  known 
as  malignant  catarrh.  Nasal  catarrh  does  not  run  a well  deflned  course 
and  may  extend  to  other  parts  of  the  respiratory  tract. 

Treatment. — In  the  simple  form  of  the  disease  medicinal  treatment  is 
not  necessary.  The  hog  should  be  fed  warmed  slop  for  a few  days  and 
a laxative  (castor  oil)  administered.  In  severe  cases  in  addition  to  this, 
inhalations  of  medicated  steam  (turpentine  or  creolin)  may  be  given. 

PHARYNGO-LARYNGITIS. 

Sore  Throat. 

The  causes  and  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  pharynx  and  larynx 
in  the  hog  are  veyy  much  the  same.  This  is  also  true  of  tonsilitis,  and 
usually,  all  of  these  structures  are  involved  at  the  same  time,  and  can 
be  discussed  conveniently  under  the  one  head,  sore  throat. 


97 


Causes. — Sore  throat  frequently  occurs  as  a complication  of  a bad  cold. 
In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  as  causes  of  cold  in  the  head  are 
wallowing  in  cold  springs  and  creeks  when  warm,  being  deprived  of 
water  and  slops  during  a warm,  dry  season,  close  filthy  pens,  debility, 
entrance  of  septic  germs  along  with  the  food  and  germs  of  hog  cholera 
and  swine  plague. 

Symptoms. — There  is  more  or  less  fever,  the  eyes  are  red  and  watery 
and  the  animal  is  dull  and  may  lie  around  the  pen  most  of  the  time  with 
its  head  buried  in  the  litter.  The  appetite  is  poor  and  the  hog  may  refuse 
food,  because  of  the  pain  and  difficulty  in  swallowing.  Sometimes  there  is 
considerable  restlessness.  The  respirations  are  noisy  and  the  throat 
swollen.  The  cough  may  be  dry,  hard  or  spasmodic  in  character,  often 
quite  hoarse.'  There  may  be  a discharge  from  the  nose  or  mouth.  In 
septic  poisoning  in  the  food  and  in  infectious  diseases,  false  membranes 
may  form  or  the  mucous  membrane  become  gangrenous.  The  disease  may 
develop  rapidly  and  the  air  passages  become  closed  by  the  swelling  in  a 
few  hours  and  the  pig  die.  Sometimes  the  animal  dies  as  a result  of  the 
local  ulceration  or  from  general  infection.  In  the  less  severe  cases  the 
disease  runs  a course  of  a week  or  more.  In  this  latter  form,  if  not 
caused  by  pathogenic  organisms,  recovery  usually  occurs. 

Treatment. — The  sick  hog  should  be  isolated  from  the  healthy  ones 
and  given  clean,  dry,  comfortable  quarters.  This  part  of  the  treatment 
is  very  important  if  the  infiammation  is  due  to  septic  organisms.  Sloppy 
food  should  be  fed  and  in  cold  weather  it  is  best  to  feed  it  warm.  Mild 
stimulating  liniments  can  be  applied  to  the  throat.  Sometimes  a blister- 
ing ointment  (powdered  cantharides  one  part  and  vaseline  eight  parts) 
Is  applied  to  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the  throat.  An  electuaria  made  of 
syrup  three  ounces  and  tincture  of  aconite  two  drams,  can  be  given  in 
teaspoonful  or  tablespoonful  doses  thrice  daily.  By  confining  the  hog 
with  a noose  around  the  upper  jaw  the  throat  can  be  swabbed  out  with 
antiseptic  washes  (silver  nitrate  one  part,  water  one  hundred  parts),  or 
permanganate  of  potassium  (two  parts,  water  ninety-eight  pafts.)  It 
Is  best  to  make  the  handle  of  the  swab  of  wire  or  the  hog  may  bite 
It  in  two.  In  acute  attacks,  or  when  the  inflammed  parts  become  gan- 
grenous, treatment  Is  of  no  use. 


98 


BRONCHITIS. 

« 

Causes. — These  are  the  same  as  in  common  cold  or  sore  throat.  Bron- 
chitis is  frequently  caused  by  irritation  from  dust  or  parasites. 

Symptoms. — In  the  acute  form  the  body  temperature  is  elevated  and 
the  appetite  impaired.  The  breathing  is  usually  distressed  and  coughing 
frequently  occurs.  The  disease  does  not  run  a definite  course  and  may 
become  chronic  if  the  exciting  causes  are  kept  up.  When  this  occurs,  the 
pig  does  not  thrive  as  it  should  and  if  the  air  passages  are  irritated  in 
the  least  by  dust,  etc.,  it  will  cough  violently.  Coughing  is  especially 
prone  to  occur  upon  leaving  the  bed  or  after  exercise.  Pigs  seldom  die 
of  this  affection. 

Treatment. — This  is  largely  preventive.  Good  food  and  care  are  about 
all  the  treatment  necessary. 


PNEUMONIA. 

Causes. — It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  infiammation  to  extend  from  the 
air  passages  to  the  lungs  and  the  animal  have  a serious  attack  of  pneu- 
monia. Plethora  is  the  principal  predisposing  factor.  Among  the  exciting 
causes  can  be  mentioned  fatigue  and  impure  air.  In  young  hogs  the  lung 
worm  will  frequently  cause  a lobular  pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia  may  come  on  quickly,  beginning  with  a chill 
and  attended  with  a high  fever,  or  as  a complication  of  some  other  respira- 
tory disease.  The  hog  will  remain  down  most  of  the  time,  hiding  under 
the  litter  and  will  eat  nothing  or  but  very  little.  The  respirations  are 
hurried.  Exercise  is  followed  by  marked  exhaustion,  sometimes  by  death. 
The  cough  is  at  first  deep  and  dry,  later  more  moist.  During  the  first 
stage  of  the  inflammation,  the  period  of  congestion,  the  cough  may  be  ac- 
companied by  hemorrhage.  Other  symptoms  will  be  revealed  in  thin, 
quiet  hogs  by  placing  the  ear  to  the  side  of  the  chest  and  listening  to 

the  lung  sounds  (ausculatation).  In  the  very  earliest  stage  of  pneumonia 

♦ 

a crepitating  sound  may  be  heard  in  the  diseased  area,  later  when  the 
engorgement  of  the  air  cells  occurs,  the  healthy  murmurs  and  the  crep- 
itating sounds  are  deadened.  When  the  lung  tissue  is  returning  to  the 
normal  state,  the  crepitating  sounds  can  again  be  heard.  The  disease  may 


99 


involve  one  lung  or  part  of  both.  The  chances  for  recovery  are  better 
in  lean  than  in  fat  hogs,  as  the  disease  is  usually  less  severe.  The  attack 
runs  a course  of  from  ten  days  to  two  or  three  weeks. 

Treatment.— The  hog  should  be  given  a comfortable  pen  and  kept  as 
quiet  as  possible.  If  it  will  eat,  a light  sloppy  diet  should  be  fed.  To 
keep  the  bowels  loose,  from  one  to  three  ounces  of  castor  oil  can  be  ad- 
ministered occasionally.  As  a counter-irritant  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  the 
following  liniment  can  be  used;  oil  of  turpentine  ten  parts,  croton  oil  one 
part.  If  the  heart  action  is  weak,  from  five  to  ten  drops  of  tincture  of 
digitalis  should  be  given  every  three  or  four  hours.  During  the  colvales- 
cent  stge,  if  the  animal  appears  weak,  alcoholic  stimulents  can  be  given. 


PLEURISY. 

This  is  an  infiammation  of  the  membrane  lining  the  chest  cavity  and 
covering  the  lungs. 

Causes. — Pleurisy  may  develop  during  the  course  of  pneumonia.  Sud- 
den chilling  of  the  body,  especially  if  overheated,  exposure  to  cold  and 
damp  pens  are  common  causes.  It  may  occur  in  the  different  contagious 
diseases  (hog  cholera,  swine  plague,  and  tuberculosis). 

Symptoms. — The  early  symptom  of  the  disease  is  chilling.  Sometimes 
the  hog  is  lame  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  fore  legs  and  appears  stiff  when 
it  walks.  The  appetite  is  poor  and  the  hog  is  restless  or  lies  down  most 
of  the  time.  The  breathing  is  highly  characteristic.  The  ribs  are  held 
rigid  and  the  respirations  are  short  and  jerky,  the  movement  being  no- 
ticed mostly  in  the  fiank.  The  body  temperature  is  higher  than  normal, 
the  pulse  quickened  and  the  cough  rather  surpressed.  Pain  is  a very 
prominent  symptom.  When  the  sides  of  the  chest  are  pressed  upon  with 
the  hand  the  hog  will  flinch,  sometimes  grunt  or  squeal.  On  auscultation 
friction  sounds  are  heard.  In  case  there  is  an  outpouring  of  fluid  into  the 
chest  cavity  (hydrothorax)  these  sounds  are  not  heard  and  all  respiratory 
sounds  toward  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  are  deadened.  If  much  fluid 
accumulates  in  the  chest  cavity,  the  symptoms  of  pain  are  diminished,  but 
the  respirations  are  more  labored  and  the  pulse  weaker.  Toward  the 
later  stage  of  the  disease,  the  hog  is  greatly  depressed.  When  made  to  get 
up,  it  may  squeal.  Frequently,  it  is  seen  lying  on  its  side  as  though  it 


100 


were  dead.  The  course  of  the  disease  is  from  one  to  two  weeks.  In  mild 
cases  and  when  only  a part  of  the  pleura  is  involved  the  symptoms  are  less 
severe. 

Treatment. — Good  care  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack  will  help  in 
aborting  it.  The  hog  should  be  placed  in  a warm,  clean  pen  and  made  as 
comfortable  as  possible.  In  a warm  pen  and  when  the  hog  is  quiet,  warm 
packs  can  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  and  the  hog  covered  with  a 
blanket.  The  medicinal  treatment  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  rec- 
ommended in  pneumonia.  A teaspoonful  of  syrup  of  squills  and  from 
three  to  six  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  can  be  given  three  times  daily. 
Sulphate  of  quinine,  five  to  twenty  grains,  and  nitrate  of  potassium,  ten 
or  fifteen  grains,  can  be  given  every  four  hours.  The  same  blistering 
liniment  as  recommended  in  pneumonia  can  be  applied  to  the  walls  of  the 
chest.  It  is  best  to  administer  a physic  early  in  the  attack,  and  feed  the 
hog  a light  sloppy  diet. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HEART. 

Diseases  of  the  heart  are  not  uncommon  in  the  hog.  Inflammation  of 
the  lining  membrane  (endodcarditis)  and  the  covering  of  the  heart  (peri- 
carditis), and  sometimes  inflammation  of  the  heart  muscles  is  met  with 
in  pleurisy,  pneumonia,  rheumatism,  hog  cholera,  swine  plague  and  other 
diseases. 

S3onptoms, — These  are  high  temperature,  depression,  severe  pain  and 
palpitation.  Occurring  as  they  do  as  complications  of  some  other  disease, 
they  are  usually  over-shadowed  by  the  original  disease. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavorable. 

FATTY  DEGENERATION  OP  THE  HEART. 

Causes. — Fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  is  due  to  overfeeding  and 
lack  of  exercise.  The  fat  accumulates  in  masses  around  the  heart  and  in 
the  muscular  tissues,  the  natural  structure  being  replaced  by  fatty 
granules. 

Symptoms. — In  this  disease,  the  heart  action  is  weak  and  irregular. 
The  hog  is  unfit  for  any  kind  of  exertion  and  may  die  suddenly  if  this 
is  attempted.  Palpitation  may  occur. 


101 


Treatment. — The  treatment  is  wholly  preventive  and  consists  in  avoid- 
ing such  conditions  as  may  cause  the  disease, 

PALPITATION.  SPASM  OF  THE  DIAPHRAGM.  THUMPS. 

True  palpitation  is  a sudden  violent  beating  of  the  heart  not  connected 
with  any  structural  disease  of  the  organ.  It  sets  in  suddenly,  the  cardiac 
sounds  are  louder  than  normal,  the  beats  are  quickened  and  the  animal 
may  be  restless  and  appear  anxious.  This  affection  sometimes  occurs  dur- 
ing the  course  of  some  digestive  disorder.  Excitement  and  exercise  may 
also  cause  it, 

Spasm  of  the  Diaphragm  is  quite  common  in  pigs.  Digestive  disorders, 
especially  overloading  of  the  stomach  and  lack  of  exercise,  are  the  main 
causes.  A number  of  pigs  in  the  litter  or  in  the  same  pen  may  become 
affected  at  the  same  time.  This  is  especially  true  of  litters  not  given  suf- 
ficient exercise. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a sudden  jerking  movement  of  the  flank.  When 
the  pig  is  standing  quietly,  this  is  very  noticeable,  and  may  be  of  such 
violence  as  to  move  the  body  backwards  and  forwards.  It  may  be  accom- 
panied by  a sound  that  can  be  heard  some  distance.  These  contractions 
are  not  rhythmical,  but  occur  more  frequently  at  one  time  than  at  an- 
other. After*  exercise- the  jerking  is  violent,  and  after  a full  meal,  is  more 
pronounced  than  when  the  stomach  is  empty.  Thumps  interfere  with  the 
pig’s  appetite  to  a certain  extent  and  they  do  not  thrive,  becoming  stunted 
in  some  cases.  Sometimes  they  lose  flesh  quite  rapidly  and  become  very 
thin.  The  course  of  the  disease  is  from  a few  days  to  several  weeks. 

Treatment. — Exercise  alone  will  generally  effect  a cure.  When  the 
disease  develops  in  a litter,  they  should  be  turned  on  pasture  and  given 
plenty  of  opportunity  to  run  around.  If  this  cannot  be  done  they  must 
be  given  exercise  in  some  other  way,  as  placing  them  in  a pen  or  box 
away  from  the  mother.  From  three  to  fifteen  drops  of  of  tincture  of 
opium  can  be  administered  in  a little  oil  every  three  or  four  hours 
to  give  relief.  It  is  well  to  administer  a physic  of  raw  linseed  oil  at  tlie 
beginning  of  the  trouble. 


102 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 

CONGESTION  AND  ANEMIA  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Causes  — In  congestion,  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain  become  engorged 
with  blood.  Fat,  plethoric  hogs  are  predisposed  to  this  condition.  The 
exciting  causes  are  sunstroke,  exertion,  tumors  and  parasites  pressing  on 
the  brain,  and  blows  on  the  head.  Congestion  may  occur  as  a complication 
in  some  of  the  infectious  diseases. 

Anemia  of  the  brain  is  due  to  an  insuABcient  amount  of  blood  in  the 
brain,  and  may  be  caused  by  a weakness  in  the  heart  action  or  severe 
hemorrhage. 

Symptoms. — These  generally  come  on  very  suddenly.  The  hog  shows 
symptoms  of  excitement  and  sensitiveness,  or  appears  dull  and  drowsy. 
Death  may  occur  in  a short  time.  Apoplexy  due  to  rupture  of  capillaries 
in  the  brain  sometimes  occurs,  and  the  disease  tends  to  merge  into  an  in- 
flammation of  the  brain. 

Treatment. — Place  the  hog  in  a cool  place  and  apply  water  or  ice  to 
the  head.  Bleeding  at  the  beginning  may  be  followed  by  good  results.  As 
a purgative,  four  or  flve  ounces  of  linseed  or  castor  oil  can  be  given.  The 
after  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  hog  quiet  and  in  a cool  comfortable 
place.  In  anemia  of  the  brain,  the  medicinal  treatment  is  along  the  line 
of  stimulants,  and  cold  applications  to  the  head  are  contra-indrdeated. 

ENCEPHALITIS. 

I nf lamination  of  the  Brain  and  its  Membranes. 

Causes. — As  causes  of  this  disease  can  be  mentioned  high  temperature 
as  in  summer,  unusual  exercise,  sudden  changes  in  the  feed,  overfeeding, 
parasites  (cysticercus),  unsanitary  conditions  and  injuries  to  the  head. 
Inflammation  of  the  brain  occurs  in  some  infectious  diseases.  It  may 
follow  a congestion  of  the  brain. 

Symptoms. — They  usually  set  in  abruptly,  the  hog  apparently  in  per- 
fect health  will  within  a few  hours  manifest  serious  symptoms  of  a ner- 
vous character.  The  disease  is  usually  ushered  in  by  a period  of  dullness. 
In  some  cases,  however,  the  hog  appears  nervous  and  excited  from  the 
first.  During  the  period  of  excitement  or  delerium,  the  hog  champs  its 


103 


teeth,  froths  at  the  mouth,  walks  or  runs  about  the  pen,  generally  in  a 
circle  and  without  showing  much  ability  to  dodge  obstructions.  It  will 
squeal  or  grunt,  try  to  climb  up  on  the  sides  of  the  pen,  press  its  head 
against  the  wall  or  fence,  and  finally  fall  over  in  a convulsion.  It  may 
regain  its  feet  in  a short  time  or  lie  in  a stupor  which  usually  ends  in 
death.  The  gravity  of  the  disease  cannot  always  be  judged  by  the  fre- 
quency and  violence  of  the  attacks,  as  often  when  the  hog  is  sleepy  and 
drowsy  from  the  first,  it  rapidly  proves  fatal.  The  course  is  usually  short 
and  the  prognosis  unfavorable. 

Treatment. — A large  dose  of  salts  should  be  given  early  in  the  attack. 
Bleeding  and  cold  applications  to  the  head  prove  of  some  value  by  les- 
sening blood  pressure  in  the  brain.  The  pen  should  be  dark  and  cool. 
When  the  disease  terminates  in  paralysis,  iodide  of  potassium,  twenty 
grains,  and  tincture  of  nux  vomica,  ten  or  twenty  drops,  can  be  given  in 
a few  ounces  of  water  three  times  a day. 

APOPLEXY. 

Apoplexy  may  occur  in  hogs  that  are  in  a very  fat  condition  and  is 
due  to  a rupture  of  a bloodvessel  in  the  brain.  It  sometimes  happens  as 
a result  of  congestion  of  the  brain.  When  this  accident  occurs,  the  hog 
drops  suddenly,  becomes  unconscious  and  is  usually  dead  in  a short  time. 

VERTIGO. 

Blind  Staggers. 

Vertigo  may  be  associated  with  diseases  of  the  brain  and  its  mem- 
branes, such  as  anemia,  congestion,  tumors  and  parasites  (cysticercus), 
especially  the  latter. 

Symptoms. — These  are  attacks  of  blindness,  jerking  upward  with  the 
head,  turning  in  a circle  or  rotating  on  the  long  axis  of  the  body, 
running  straight  ahead  and  finally  falling  on  the  side  or  rolling  over  and 
over.  When  due  to  parasites,  the  hog  turns  to  the  side  on  which  the 
parasite  lies  and  the  attacks  are  apt  to  occur  at  any  time. 


104 


EPILEPSY. 

Spasjus,  Fits. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  sudden  loss  of  consciousness,  con- 
vulsive movements,  etc.  In  the  intervals  between  the  attacks  the  hog  may 
appear  in  good  health. 

Causes. — Epilepsy  may  be  due  to  lesions  in  the  spinal  cord  or  brain. 
It  is  sometimes  transmitted  fro  mthe  parent  to  the  offspring  and  in-breed- 
ing is  also  thought  to  cause  it.  Intestinal  worms  are  probably  the  most 
common  cause  of  spasms  in  young  pigs.  It  may  also  occur  as  a result 
of  dentition. 

Symptoms. — The  pig  may  be  restless  previous  to  the  attack.  The  con- 
vulsive contractions  generally  begin  in  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  ex- 
tremities. Jerking  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,  champing  of  the  jaws  and 
an  unsteady  gait  is  noticed  at  first.  Suddenly  the  pig  falls,  consciousness 
is  lost,  the  limbs  are  extended  and  the  seat  of  convulsive  movements,  the 
head  may  be  thrown  back,  saliva  runs  from  the  mouth  and  urine  is  passed. 
Because  of  the  respiratory  muscles  being  involved,  the  animal  has  great 
difficulty  in  breathing.  In  mild  cases  the  convulsive  movements  are  feeble 
and  may  cease  in  a few  seconds.  Usually  the  attack  lasts  a few  minutes. 
The  hog  may  get  up  and  act  as  though  nothing  had  happened  or  act  dull 
and  sick  for  several  days.  There  is  some  danger  of  the  pig  dying  in  an 
attack.  Sometimes  during  a seizure,  the  other  hogs  in  the  pen  will  kill  it. 

Treatment. — The  spasm  may  be  stopped  l3y  throwing  cold  water  on  the 
pig’s  head,  or  better  by  immersing  its  body  in  warm  water.  The  pig  should 
be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible  between  attacks.  A cathartic  of  castor  oil 
should  be  given.  Until  the  stupor  has  completely  passed,  it  is  best  to  give 
from  half  a dram  to  a dram  of  bromide  of  potassium  in  the  feed  or  drench 
twice  daily.  As  soon  as  it  acts  well,  it  can  be  turned  out  with  the  rest 
of  the  herd. 


CHOREA. 

This  affection  is  commonly  seen  in  young  pigs,  but  may  develop  at 
any  age.  The  causes  of  the  disease  are  not  definitely  known.  It  is  more 
commonly  seen  in  weak,  poorly  developed  or  deformed  pigs,  specially  those 


105 


having  a bulging  forehead  and  showing  a tendency  toward  hydrocephalus. 

Symptoms. — Chorea  is  characterized  by  spasmotic  movements  of  some 
part  of  the  body,  as  the  head,  or  one  or  more  legs.  The  head  is  most 
often  affected,  and  is  jerked  to  one  side  and  may  be  accompanied  by  wry 
neck.  The  jerking  occurs  in  quick  succession,  or  there  may  be  considerable 
interval  between  jerks.  The  attacks  may  become  spasmotic,  that  is,  very 
bad  part  of  the  time  and  only  slightly  so  at  other  times.  The  jerking 
takes  place  more  or  less  constantly  during  the  waking  hours.  If  a leg 
be  affected,  it  will  be  drawn  up  and  put  down  suddenly,  keeping  up  the 
motion  more  or  less  constantly  while  standing.  There  will  also  be  some 
twitching  when  lying  down  and  not  asleep. 

Often  when  pigs  are  so  affected,  although  in  good  condition  when  the 
trouble  begins,  they  become  thin  and  puny. 

Treatment. — The  best  treatment  is  to  turn  the  affected  pig  out  on 
clover  pasture  , and  give  it  plenty  of  milk.  As  the  animal  grows,  it  may 
gradually  get  better  without  medicinal  treatment.  Good  results  may 
follow  the  administration  of  tincture  of  asefoetida  in  half  tablespoonful 
doses  two  or  three  times  a day. 

SUNSTROKE  OR  HEATSTROKE. 

Hogs,  especially  fat  hogs,  when  driven  on  a very  hot  day,  or  handled 
and  shipped  some  distance  are  apt  to  be  overcome  with  the  heat.  If  kept 
in  a pasture  unprovided  with  shade,  they  may  suffer  severely  from  the  sun. 

Symptoms. — The  principal  symptoms  are  fatigue,  dropping  of  the  ears, 
staggering  gait,  sudden  collapse  and  unconsciousness  and  death.  Convul- 
sions may  occur  and  death  generally  follows  in  a short  time. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  nol  handling  fat 
hogs  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  in  the  very  warm  weather,  and 
providing  the  hog  pasture  with  some  shade.  When  handling  hogs  in  hot 
weather,  frequent  wetting  with  cold  water  will  help  in  keeping  them  cool. 
If  overcome  by  the  heat,  it  is  best  to  move  the  hog  to  a shady  place  and 
pour  cold  water  on  the  head,  but  not  upon  the  body.  As  a stimulent, 
alcohol  (one  tablespoonful)  or  tincture  of  mix  vomica  ,one  teaspoonful), 
can  be  given  in  a little  water. 


106 


PARALYSIS  OF  THE  POSTERIOR  PART  OF  THE  BODY. 

Causes. — Small  centers  of  inflammation  in  the  spinal  cord  due  to  in- 
juries in  the  region  of  the  back  will  cause  a paralysis  of  the  hind  parts. 
Pressure  on  the  cord  from  tumors,  parasites  (cysticercus),  or  an  over  fat 
condition  will  also  cause  it.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  paralysis  to  occur 
among  a number  of  hogs  in  a pen  or  when  shipped  in  cars  or  in  a crate. 
Lack  of  exercise,  indigestion  and  constipation  are  said  to  cause  this  con- 
dition. This  disease  is  usually  called  “kidney  disease.” 

Symptoms. — The  paralysis  may  develop  suddenly  or  come  on  gradually 
and  nearly  always  involves  both  hind  legs.  When  the  disease  develops 
slowly  the  first  symptom  noticed  is  an  unsteady  gait,  the  hind  legs  do  not 
follow  exactly  in  line  with  the  front  ones,  become  crossed,  or  instead 
of  walking  directly  forward,  the  body  appears  to  go  sidewise.  After 
lying  down  there  is  more  or  less  difllculty  in  getting  up.  These  symptoms 
become  progressively  worse  until  the  hog  simply  drags  the  hind  parts. 
If  the  paralysis  develops  suddenly,  the  pig  is  found  dragging  the  hind  parts 
and  unable  to  get  up  on  the  hind  legs.  The  appetite  is  usually  good  in  the 
early  stage,  and  may  remain  so.  Pressure  over  the  affected  region  does 
not  cause  the  animal  pain,  but  sometimes  it  will  squeal  when  moved.  The 
appetite  may  become  poor  and  the  bowels  constipated,  depending  upon 
the  extent  of  the  lesions.  If  recovery  does  not  take  place  within  a few 
days  or  a week,  the  case  is  not  apt  to  terminate  favorably. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  moving  the  hog  to  a comfortable  pen 
where  it  can  not  be  disturbed  and  feeding  it  mostly  on  slopy  food.  It  is 
very  necessary  that  no  dry  feed  be  given  in  order  to  prevent  constipation. 
Early  in  the  disease  a cathartic  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  and  re- 
peated if  necessary.  This  may  be  supplimented  with  an  enema  of  water 
and  glycerine.  From  five  to  ten  drops  of  tincture  of  nux  vomica  should 
be  given  two  or  three  times  a day.  Counter-irrritation  along  the  back 
by  means  of  blistering  liniments  (oil  of  turpentine  ten  parts,  croton  oil 
one  part),  or  the  firing  iron  can  be  used.  Dr.  Peters,  of  Nebraska,  rec- 
ommends the  firing  iron.  To  fire  the  back  of  a hog,  number  sixteen 
wire  can  be  used.  There  should  be  fifteen  or  sixteen  pieces  about  a foot 
in  length  pointed  at  one  end.  The  pointed  end  should  be  placed  in  a 
charcoal  or  corn  cob  fire  and  heated  to  a white  heat.  When  ready  for 


107 


use,  they  can  be  held  in  a pair  of  pincers,  and  the  skin  punctured  at 
points  an  inch  or  two  apart  in  the  region  of  the  loins.  The  wires  should 
be  allowed  to  pass  through  the  skin  and  into  the  tissue  beneath,  or  the 
operation  wdll  not  give  satisfactory  results.  The  hog  should  not  be  forced 
to  walk,  as  this  will  retard  recovery.  After  the  animal  is  able  to  walk, 
kepe  it  away  from  other  pigs  for  a few  weeRs. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 

STERILITY.  BARRENNESS. 

Sterility  may  exist  in  the  male  or  female  and  may  be  temporary  or 
permanent.  Some  years  the  per  cent,  of  barren  sows  is  very  large.The  cause 
for  the  condition  has  not  been  ascertained. 

Causes  — In  the  male  impotency  is  sometimes  a functional  trouble,  due 
to  improper  development  of  the  sexual  organs  or  a broken  copulatory 
organ.  Other  causes  are  a fatty  degeneration  or  infiltration  of  the  testicles, 
lack  of  physical  or  functional  exercise  and  old  age. 

In  the  female,  sterility  may  result  from  a greater  variety  of  conditions 
than  in  the  male.  Excessive  fattening,  as  is  sometimes  seen  in  sows  fitted 
for  exhibition  purposes,  will  cause  it.  This  may  be  due  to  the  ovaries 
becoming  so  infiltrated  with  fat  as  to  interfere  with  their  function,  or  to 
an  occlusion  of  the  passages  with  tat.  In  the  former  case  the  change  is 
often  so  great  that  nothing  will  insure  a complete  return  to  the  normal, 
but  in  the  latter  the  function  can  be  restored  by  reducing  the  condition 
of  the  sow.  Sometimes  a rigid  os  prevents  the  entrance  of  the  seminal 
fluid  into  the  womb.  Such  a condition  may  occur  in  young  or  aged  sows. 
Inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  uterus  or  vagina  may  also 
cause  it.  In  this  condition  a discharge,  usually  so  slight  as  to  escape 
notice,  occurs,  and  when  the  male  element  comes  in  contact  with  the 
abnormal  secretions,  it  is  destroyed.  In  old  age  barrenness  occurs. 

Faulty  development  of  the  generative  organs  is  not  uncommon  in 
sows.  The  uterus  may  be  abnormally  small,  the  ovaries  rudimentary  and 
the  vagina  and  os  imperforate.  In  these  cases,  the  sow  may  never  come 
in  heat  and  never  conceives. 

Treatment.— Excessive  fat  is  a frequent  cause  of  sterility  in  both  the 
male  and  the  female  and  must  be  overcome  by  dieting  and  exercise.  The 


108 


male  should  not  be  used  to  excess  and  should  be  kept  in  a healthy,  vig- 
orous condition.  If  the  os  is  rigid  and  closed,  preventing  the  entrance 
of  the  seminal  fluid  into  the  womb,  it  should  be  dilated.  Closure  of  the 
maternal  passages  by  fat  can  be  overcome  by  a proper  diet  and  plenty  of 
exercise. 


ABORTION. 

Abortion  or  slipping  of  pigs  is  a troublesome  problem  with  which 
to  deal.  There  seems  to  be  two  varieties  in  these  animals,  the  same  as 
in  the  other  domestic  animals,  sporadic  and  infectious.  The  sporadic 
form  is  the  variety  most  often  met  with  and  is  due  to  accidents,  as  slip- 
ping, falls,  being  kicked  by  a horse,  or  hooked  by  a cow,  by  being  run 
by  dogs,  or  worried  by  other  sows  in  heat,  or  by  a boar,  to  spoiled* or 
musty  food,  to  “piling  up”  in  bed,  to  sudden  exposure  to  cold  and  to  the 
effects  of  some  other  disease,  as  cholera.  It  can  readily  be  observed  that 
these  causes  will  not  as  a rule  act  upon  many  sows  in  the  same  herd 
with  sufficient  violence  to  cause  abortion,  as  the  sow  does  not  abort 
easily.  After  an  outbreak  of  cholera  we  expect  a considerable  percentage 
of  abortion.  While  an  infectious  abortion  of  the  sow  has  not  been  de- 
scribed, the  Station  has  been  the  recipient  of  several  accounts  of  such 
trouble  that  could  not  be  accounts  for  upon  any  other  hypothesis.  In 
these  cases  a greater  or  less  percentage  of  the  herd  would  be  affected,  and, 
like  barrenness,  the  trouble  is  much  more  frequent  some  seasons  than  at 
others. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  abortion  when  due  to  accidental  causes 
are  great  uneasiness,  shivering,  making  of  a bed,  violent  straining  and 
groaning.  The  parts  are  unprepared  for  the  accident  and  therefore  is  as- 
sociated with  considerable  pain  and  occupies  several  hours.  If  the  abor- 
tion occurs  within  the  first  two  months  a discharge  of  blood  and  a macer- 
ated foetus  and  membrane  are  all  that  will  be  found.  After  two  months 
the  foetuses  will  be  entire.  In  some  cases  there  will  be  a loss  of  appe- 
tite and  an  indisposition  to  move  about  for  a few  days,  while  in  others 
the  disturbance  is  so  slight  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable.  In  the  infectious 
form  of  the  disease  the  genital  tract  seems  to  be  prepared  and  there  is 
less  disturbance  than  in  normal  labor,  and  unless  the  swollen  genitals  and 


109 


the  expelled  foetuses  are  seen,  the  first  warning  of  such  an  accident  may 
be  the  recurrence  of  heat.  Infectious  abortion  seems  to  occur  most  fre- 
quently at  the  end  of  the  second  month. 

Treatment. — Very  little  can  be  done  to  arrest  the  act  and  without  know- 
ing the  cause  it  is  hard  to  prevent.  It  is  a wise  measure  in  all  cases  to 
remove  abortion  sows  from  the  herd  upon  the  assumption  that  it  may  be 
infectious  and  that  the  presence  of  such  an  animal  may  be  a menace  to 
others. 


MAMMITIS.  GARGET. 

Causes. — Inflammation  of  the  udder  may  occur  in  heavy  milkers,  due 
to  the  fact  that  all  of  the  milk  is  not  drawn.  This  condition  may  exist 
when  a part  or  all  of  the  litter  dies.  Obstructed  teats  will  sometimes 
cause  it.  Following  a difficult  case  of  parturition  the  udder  will  sometimes 
become  inflamed. 


Tumors  of  the  mammary  ghinds. 


Treatment. — Remove  as  much  milk  as  possible  and  bathe  the  udder 
with  hot  water  for  twenty  minutes  several  time  a day.  Knead  the  parts 
thoroughly.  As  a local  a])pli(;ation  use  a dram  each  of  tincture  of  bella- 
donna and  spirits  of  camphor  in  two  ounces  of  lard;  rub  well  when  ap- 
plying it,  A cathartic  of  Epsom  salts  or  castor  oil  should  be  given  every 
other  day  until  the  condition  is  lelieved.  When  the  teats  are  sore,  they 


no 


should  be  bathed  once  a day  with  white  lotion  (one  part  zinc  sulphate, 
three-fourths  of  a part  lead  acitate,  thirty  parts  water)  until  healed. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

URTICARIA. 

Causes. — Unhygienic  conditions  and  irritation  to  the  skin  from  lice  and 
drugs  are  frequent  causes  of  urticaria.  Young  pigs  are  predisposed  to 
this  class  of  skin  diseases,  and  it  may  be  seen  in  the  different  specific 
diseases,  as  cholera  and  swine  plague. 


'Jhick,  rough  skin  due  to  prolonged  exposure  in  a wet  cold  place. 


Ill 


Symptoms. — The  blotches  come  on  the  skin  very  suddenly,  usually  in 
the  night  and  appear  as  red,  hot,  swollen  spots  that  may  run  together  and 
become  very  large.  The  spots  are  seen  on  almost  any  part  of  the  body. 
On  account  of  the  itching,  the  hog  will  scratch  and  rub  the  part  and  the 
surface  may  become  abraided.  In  the  light  cases,  the  trouble  will  pass  off 
about  the  second  day  without  the  formation  of  pustules.  In  the  more 
severe  form,  pustules  develop  and  it  requires  a week  or  more  to  make  a 
recovery.  The  appetite  is  usually  impaired  and  the  hog  is  feverish.  This 
disease  is  not  contagious. 

Treatment. — Two  or  three  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  in 
the  feed,  and  the  hogs  fed  a light  sloppy  diet.  If  dirty  or  lousy,  they  should 
be  dipped  or  washed  with  a watery  solution  of  some  of  the  cresol  prepara- 
tions. In  severe  cases  ten  drops  of  Fowler’s  solution  of  arsenic  should  be 
given  twice  daily. 

ECZEMA.  PITCH  MANGE. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  associated  with  unhygenic  conditions,  filthy 
pens,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  a debilitated  condition.  It  may 
also  occur  in  specific  diseases  (hog  cholera,  articular  rheumatism,  etc.). 
What  seems  to  be  a variety  of  this  form  of  mange,  occurs  upon  marsh 
land  in  the  summer,  when  dry,  due  to  the  irritation  of  the  soil — itch  dirt. 
This  is  seen  frequently  in  the  Kankakee  region. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  starts  by  small  red  spots  on  the  skin.  These 
are  followed  by  vesicles  (blisters)  which  in  time  becomes  pustular.  Fin- 
ally these  dry  up  and  form  thick  crusts  which  gradually  wear  down  and 
become  thin  and  branny.  All  stages  of  the  disease  may  be  seen  on  the 
skin  at  the  same  time.  There  is  intense  itching  and  the  hog  may  have  a 
slight  fever,  a poor  appetite  and  act  dull. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  bettering  the  hygenic  conditions  under 
which  the  hogs  are  kept,  and  either  washing  or  dipping  them  in  a water 
solution  of  some  of  the  coal  tar  preparations.  The  washing  or  dipping 
should  be  repeated  at  frequent  intervals. 

SKIN  WARTS. 


Warts  are  simply  piled  up  epidermal  cells  and  are  best  removed  with 


112 


a knife.  A preparation  of  a dram  of  salicylic  acid  in  an  ounce  of  castor 
oil,  rubbed  on  once  or  twice  a day  for  a couple  of  weeks  may  remove  them. 

SORE  TAILS. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  sore  tails,  and  tails  dropping  off,  are  cold, 
filth  and  injuries.  When  young  the  tail  may  become  injured  by  the 
mother  stepping  on  it.  Sometimes  when  the  pen  is  filthy  bacteria  will 


I’itcli  iiianfio  (hie  to  “itcli  dirt.” 


118 


cause  it.  Old  hogs,  when  allowed  to  wallow  in  the  mud,  may  loose  a portion 
of  their  tails  from  the  mud  balls  that  accumulate  toward  the  ends.  Loss 
of  the  tail  is  frequently  associated  with  an  unthrifty  condition. 

Treatment. — This  is  preventive.  If  the  pens  are  filthy,  they  should 
De  cleaned  and  antiseptics  used  freely.  The  loss  of  the  tail  is  of  little 
consequence  to  the  ordinary  hog,  but  for  those  used  for  other  purposes 
or  to  be  sold  as  breeders,  it  becomes  a blemish. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  LOCOMOTORY  ORGANS. 

ARTICULAR  AND  MUSCULAR  RHEUMATISM. 

Articular  and  muscular  rheumatism  are  so  frequently  associated  in 
the  hog  that  it  is  best  to  discuss  them  together.  Although  hogs  live  under 
favorable  conditions  for  the  development  of  rheumatism,  they  do  not 
otten  develop  the  disease.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  subcutaneous  tat. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  attributed  to  cold,  damp  pens  and  exposure, 
but  it  may  occur  in  hogs  when  well  managed.  Overfeeding  is  also  said 
to  cause  it.  Rheumatic  symptoms  are  frequently  noticed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera. 

Symptoms. — The  muscles  and  joints  may  both  be  involved  and  the 
symptoms  quite  marked.  There  may  be  a fever,  loss  of  appetite  and  a 
general  lack  of  condition.  The  lameness  will  move  about  and  may  in- 
volve one  or  more  of  the  legs.  Sometimes  there  is  considerable  swelling 
of  the  hock,  the  knee  or  the  joints  of  the  foot.  If  the  muscles  of  the  back 
are  involved,  it  is  arched  and  very  tender  on  manipulation.  Stiffness  in 
the  gait  is  present,  especially  if  the  quarters  are  involved.  The  pain  in 
the  muscles  and  swollen,  infiamed  joints  is  intense,  and  the  hog  will 
sometimes  squeal  when  the  parts  are  handled  or  the  joints  fiexed.  While 
the  hog  is  asleep  there  may  be  sudden  contractions,  indicating  pain  due  to 
relaxation  of  muscles.  On  account  of  the  pain  and  difficulty  in  walking, 
the  hog  will  lie  around  the  pen  most  of  the  time  and  refuse  to  go  far  for 
his  food. 

Treatment, — Preventive  treatment  is  very  important.  It  means  the 
providing  of  dry,  comfortable  quarters  and  the  avoidance  of  exposure. 
The  straw  stack  should  be  avoided  as  a shelter  for  hogs.  Sick  hogs  should 


114 


be  given  sloppy  feed.  Salicylate  of  soda  can  be  given  in  twenty  or  forty 
grain  doses  three  times  daily.  Recovery  occurs  in  from  two  to  three 
weeks.  The  disease  may  become  chronic. 

RACHITIS,  OR  RICKETS. 

Causes. — This  condition  is  due  to  a lack  of  development  of  the  bones. 
The  mineral  matter  is  not  deposited  in  the  normal  proportion.  It  is  seen 
in  growing  pigs  after  weaning.  It  most  often  occurs  in  those  that  re- 
ceive an  almost  exclusively  corn  diet  with  no  milk  and  no  pasture.  It  is 
seen  more  often  in  winter  than  in  summer  because  the  conditions  enforce 
the  penning  and  feeding  of  the  pigs  at  that  season.  It  is  also  seen  in 
some  litters  which  might  indicate  that  it  was  hereditary. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  is  characterized  by  weakness  of  the  bones, 
bending  of  the  legs,  breaking  down  upon  the  feet;  there  may  be  either 
a dropping  or  arching  of  the  back,  a spraddling  gait,  distorted  face,  bulg- 
ing forehead,  sniffles  and  paralysis.  Such  pigs  are  nearly  always  fat  at 
the  beginning.  The  disease  does  not  tend  to  destroy  the  animal  quickly, 
as  it  is  a slowly  progressing  disease. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  as  far  as  it  can  be  of  service,  is  to  feed  less 
fattening  food  and  substitute  milk,  oats,  rye,  and  a little  oil  meal.  An 
abundance  of  salt,,  charcoal,  wood  ashes  and  air  slaked  lime  should  be 
available. 


SORE  FEET. 

Causes. — If  hogs  are  kept  continually  on  hard  floors  or  driven  over 
hard,  rough  roads,  the  feet  may  become  inflamed  and  bruised.  Standing 
in  fllth  may  cause  the  feet  to  become  sore,  the  moisture  softening  the 
tissue  at  the  uper  margin  of  the  wall,  in  the  interdigital  space  and  at 
the  heel. 

Symptoms. — The  hog  flinches  a great  deal  when  it  walks,  goes  quite 
lame.  This  is  especially  true  of  heavy  hogs,  and  if  the  pain  is  severe,  they 
lie  down  most  of  the  time.  On  making  a local  examination,  the  claws  may 
be  found  long  and  over  grown  or  the  heels  and  the  space  between  the 
claws  is  swollen,  sore  and  Inflamed. 


115 


Treatment. — When  caused  by  hard  floors,  simply  turning  them  out  on 
pasture  will  effect  a cure.  If  the  pens  and  yards  are  fllthy,  they  should 
be  changed  to  clean  dry  pens,  and  the  feet  freed  from  all  fllth  and  washed 
once  a day  with  a four  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  some  of  the  coal  tar 
preparations;  or  with  chloride  of  zinc  (one  teaspoonful  to  the  pint  of 
water).  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  hogs  be  kept  in  a clean,  dry  place 
until  well. 

SNIFFLES.  SNUFFLES.  BULLNOSE. 

It  is  evident  from  the  descriptions  given  that  all  writers  are  not 
agreed  upon  tlie  nature  of  this  affection.  There  are  two  varieties  of  the 
affection — the  catarrhal  and  the  rachitic. 

In  the  catarrhal  form  we  have  a more  or  less  wheezing,  respiration 
occurring  at  irregular  intervals.  There  is  a profuse,  watery  discharge 
frorh  the  nostrils,  causing  the  animal  to  blow  violently  when  first  getting 
out  of  bed  or  after  eating.  The  animal  can  not  exercise  freely  owing  to 
the  difficult  respiration.  The  attacks,  which  are  mild  and  of  intermittent 
character  at  first,  become  more  severe  and  the  condition  is  persistent. 
The  discharge  changes  from  a thin,  water  secretion  to  one  containing 
blood,  to  thick  mucus,  and  Anally  yellowish  or  purulent.  Nose  bleeding 
is  frequent  owing  to  the  violent  efforts  to  clear  the  nose.  There  is  a 
cough,'  the  eyes  become  red  and  the  tears  flow,  the  hair  roughens  and  the 
whole  appearance  is  “dumpish.”  There  is  difficulty  in  seizing,  grinding 
and  swallowing  the  food,  owing  to  the  soreness  of  the  mouth  and  throat. 
The  trouble  runs  a course  of  from  one  to  five  weeks  and  death  comes 
from  starvation  or  asphyxia.  Those  that  recover  nearly  always  remain 
stunted. 

A post-mortem  examination  of  such  a case  shows  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  nasal  chambers  to  be  greatly  thickened,  practically  block- 
ing the  air  passages.  The  turbinates  and  the  septum  become  so  crowded 
by  the  uneven  pressure  that  they  are  deformed.  The  effect  is  to  produce 
a blunt,  thickened,  more  or  less  twisted  nose,  depending  upon  the  uneven 
changes  in  the  different  bones. 

In  the  rachitic  form  we  have  essentially  the  same  changes  take  place 
In  the  nose,  and  In  addition  there  are  changes  in  the  bones  In  other  parts 


IIG 


of  the  body.  The  legs  become  curved  and  misshapen,  and  often  there  is 
breaking  down  on  the  feet.  Not  infrequently,  too,  there  will  be  bulg- 
ing of  the  bones  of  the  head,  as  in  hydrocephalus. 

Causes. — The  cause  of  the  trouble  is  not  definitely  known.  By  some 
all  the  cases  are  regarded  as  being  primarily  due  to  a lack  of  development 
of  the  bones  in  the  nose,  thus  prdisposing  to  catarrhal  trouble.  Others 
consider  that  the  trouble  may  be  catarrhal  from  the  beginning,  due  to 
catching  cold,  and  that  the  changes  in  the  bones  are  secondary.  The 
writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  some  cases  belong  to  one  class  and  some 
to  the  other. 

The  disease  is  sometimes  described  as  being  contagious,  but  we  are 
not  in  possession  of  facts  to  justify  such  a statement.  It  is  more  probable 
that  the  conditions  which  give  rise  to  the  trouble  in  one  pig  may  also 
affect  others.  It  is  frequently  observed  to  affect  all  the  pigs  belonging 
to  one  litter,  but  I have  never  witnessed  the  trouble  pass  from  the  pigs 
of  one  litter  to  pigs  of  another.  It  has  also  been  observed  in  four  succes- 
sive litters  from  the  same  mother,  thus  showing  a hereditary  tendency. 
There  were  also  other  evidences  of  rickets  present. 

We  find  this  trouble  in  pigs  kept  under  good  hygienic  conditions  as 
well  as  in  those  that  are  subject  to  exposure  and  poorly  nourished,  and 
it  is  more  common  in  those  breeds  with  stubby,  turned-up  noses  than  of 
the  straight  variety. 

Treatment. — The  best  treatment  is  to  destroy  such  pigs.  It  will  end 
their  misery  and  save  expense.  The  majority  will  die  and  those  that 
recover  will  not  be  worth  feeding  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten.  Those  who 
wish  to  try  to  save  them  should  put  the  pigs  upon  a good  pasture  and  feed 
sweet  milk.  Corn  should  not  be  given,  or,  if  it  be  given,  there  should  be 
oil  meal  added  to  balance  the  ration.  If  pasture  can  not  be  secured, 
provide  a dry,  warm  pen.  Keep  the  bowels  open  as  the  symptoms  may 
indicate.  Fumigate  with  burning  tar  and  apply  tar  about  the  feed 
troughs.  An  ointment  composed  of  equal  parts  turpentine,  kerosene  and 
ammonia  in  sufficient  lard  to  make  it  stiff  has  been  recommended  as  an 
application  to  the  face.  This  is  repeated  twice  a week  for  a month. 


117 


DIFFICULT  PARTURITION. 

DiflBcult  birth  is  not  as  common  in  the  sow  as  it  is  in  the  larger 
domestic  animals.  This  is  because  the  pelvic  cavity  through  which  the 
foetus  passes  is  large  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  young.  A roomy 
pelvic  cavity,  however,  does  not  always  insure  an  easy  birth,  and  when 
Stacie  to  birth,  and  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  owner  should  be  not 
hygiene  of  pregnant  animals,  there  will  be  plenty  of  cases  of  difficult 
parturition  in  the  herd. 

Causes. — The  most  common  cause  of  difficult  parturition  in  young, 
fat  sows  is  a large  foetus  and  a narrow  maternal  passage,  a condition 
frequently  met  with  when  a large  male  is  used  on  small  sows.  Other 
causes  are  malpresentatioms,  monstrosities  and  diseases  of  the  foetus 
(hydrocephalus,  emphysemia,  etc.).  Emphysematous  conditions  are  met 
with  when  the  act  of  parturition  has  been  prolonged  and  the  foetus  is 
dead  and  undergoing  decomposition.  The  only  malpresentation  met  with 


is  the  transverse.  In  this  presentation  instead  of  the  head  or  breech 
presenting,  it  is  the  side,  back  or  belly.  In  prolonged  parturition  the  ma- 
ternal passages  become  dry  and  the  passage  of  the  foetus  along  them  is 
greatly  interferred  with.  In  case  of  debility  and  exhaustion,  the  ex- 
pelling powers  are  weak  in  comparison  with  the  resistance  to  be  overcome, 
and  but  little  progress  is  made.  A dead  foetus  acts  as  an  obstacle  to  a 
rapid  birth. 

Treatment. — At  the  time  of  birth  the  sow  should  be  in  comfortable 
quarters  where  there  will  be  no  chance  of  her  being  disturbed  by  other 
animals,  and  where  the  necessary  assistance  and  care  can  be  given  with- 


4 


118 


out  the  attendant  undergoing  too  many  discomforts.  The  act  of  parturition 
may  be  prolonged  and  progress  very  slowly  without  their  being  any  ob- 
stacle to  birth,  and  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  owner  should  be  not 
to  meddle  too  soon,  but  to  wait  until  nature  has  had  a fair  chance.  In 
nearly  all  cases  the  sow  is  quiet  and  in  the  recumbent  position,  and  her 
condition  can  be  judged  by  the  progress  made  during  the  labor,  and  an 
exploration  of  the  parts  with  the  hand.  Before  making  an  exploration, 
the  hands  should  be  washed  and  the  fingers  smeared  with  vaseline.  If 
necessary,  the  finger  nails  should  be  shortrened.  When  the  hand  is  large 
and  the  passages  narrow,  the  fingers  are  all  that  can  be  inserted.  This 
will  be  sufficient  to  judge  the  condition  of  the  maternal  passages  and  the 
position  of  the  foetus,  if  it  has  gotten  as  far  back  as  the  entrance  to  the 
pelvic  cavity,  or  into  the  passages.  The  explorer  should  conduct  his  ex- 
amination with  all  the  care,  attention  and  gentleness  possible,  and  take 
time  to  assure  himself  of  the  true  state  of  affairs. 

After  becoming  satisfied  as  to  the  conditions  present,  we  should  give 
the  required  assistance.  We  should  not  go  too  far  in  assisting  her, 
nor  attempt  to  do  what  nature  herself  could  not  accomplish  under  more 
favorable  circumstances.  For  instance,  if  the  foetus  is  so  large  or  de- 
formed in  such  a way  that  it  cannot  pass  through  the  entrance  into  the 
pelvic  cavity,  we  must  not  attempt  it.  In  case  the  sow  is  restless,  she 
should  be  given  a tablespoonful  of  tincture  of  opium,  and  if  necessary, 
the  dose  should  be  repeated.  It  the  parts  need  dilating,  fiuid  extract  of 
belladonna  can  be  smeared  on  the  os.  Dry,  feverish  pasages  can  be 
moistened  by  injecting  into  them  with  about  an  eight  ounce  syringe,  soapy, 
warm  water.  The  further  forward  the  fiuid  is  thrown,  the  better  will  be 
the  results.  If  the  expelling  forces  are  not  sufficient  to  expell  the  foetus 
and  there  is  no  obstacle  to  birth,  their  force  can  be  increased  by  admin- 
istering to  the  sow  from  half  a dram  to  a dram  and  a half  of  extract  of 
ergot  and  repeating  the  dose  in  half  an  hour  if  necessary.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  this  drug  should  not  be  given  if  there  is  undue 
resistance  to  birth,  unless  the  animal  is  exhausted  and  debilitated. 

If  the  difiiculty  is  a malpresentation,  it  should  be  corrected  with  the 
fingers  if  the  sow  is  “roomy”,  or  with  wire  hooks  made  from  number  eight 
wire.  The  hooks  should  be  crooked  about  half  an  inch,  rather  blunt  on 
the  end,  and  the  shank  long  so  that  the  operator  can  manipulate  them 
handily.  These  hooks  are  useful  in  helping  to  extract  the  foetus,  but  are 


119 


not  as  handy  as  some  of  the  many  styles  of  pig  forceps  now  on  the 
market. 

After  giving  the  necessary  aid,  we  should  wait  and  watch  results.  If 
our  efforts  have  proven  unsuccessful,  we  must  then  resort  to  the  pig  for- 
ceps, hooks,  etc.,  and  proceed  in  extracting  the  foetus.  If  it  has  not  al- 
ready entered  the  pelvic  cavity  and  the  passages  are  narrow,  our  efforts 
may  prove  unsuccessful.  This  is  very  apt  to  be  the  case  if  the  foetus  is 
emphysematous  or  dead.  The  after  treatment  consists  in  washing  out 
the  uterus  and  vagina  with  a two  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  creolin. 

CAESARIAN  SECTION.  LAPAROTOMY. 

When  all  effort  to  remove  the  young  by  ordinary  means  fail,  we  can 
then  resort  to  more  heroic  measures,  that  of  making  an  opening  into  the 
uterus  through  the  abdominal  walls  and  extracting  the  foetus.  In  val- 
uable breeding  sows  this  operation  is  of  special  value,  but  should  not  be 
attempted  by  the  stockman.  It  is  useless,  however,  to  operate  when  the 
sow  is  exhausted  by  two  or  three  days  of  labor  and  after  the  foetuses 
have  begun  to  decompose. 

EVERSION  OF  THE  UTERUS  AND  VAGINA. 

One  of  the  accidents  following  parturition  is  the  eversion  or  prolapsus 
of  the  vagina  and  the  uterus.  Only  a portion  of  the  uterus  is  involved, 
and  it  is  seldom  that  a complete  prolapsus  of  this  organ  occurs.  This 
condition  may  occur  before  parturition. 

The  chief  symptom  of  this  accident  is  the  presence  of  a tumor  pro- 
truding from  between  the  lips  of  the  vulva,  and  which  may  hang  some 
distance  below  that  opening. 

Treatment. — It  consists  in  cleaning  the  organ  with  warm  water  and 
antiseptics  and  returning  it  to  its  proper  position.  If  the  part  is  badly 
swollen,  take  a strip  of  muslin  about  two  yards  long  and  two  inches  wide; 
begin  winding  from  the  outer  end  and  wind  toward  the  body  and  allow  the 
bandage  to  remain  on  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Keep  the  body  end 
tight  and  remove  the  outer  part  and  then  rebind  in  the  same  manner. 
After  removing  the  bandage,  apply  both  thumbs  to  the  center  of  the  mass 


120 


and  return  it  at  once  by  a slow,  steady  pressure.  The  organ  can  be  re- 
tained in  position  by  placing  a few  stout  stitches  across  the  lips  of  the 
vulva. 

INFLAMMATION  OP  THE  UTERUS  AND  VAGINA. 

Causes. — Inflammation  of  the  uterus  and  vagina  may  be  caused  by  in- 
juries to  the  walls  of  the  maternal  passages  and  infection  from  pathogenic 
germs,  or  as  a result  of  the  retention  of  dead  foetuses.  This  latter  cause 
is  not  at  all  uncommon. 

Symptoms. — These  are  tumefaction  of  the  vulva,  heat  and  redness  of 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  vagina,  fever,  straining,  loss  of  appetite 
and  dullness.  In  serious  cases  the  temperature  is  high,  the  respirations 
quickened,  and  the  animal  shows  evidence  of  severe  pain.  The  inflamma- 
tion may  extend  from  the  womb  to  the  lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen. 
There  may  be  a foul  smelling  discharge  from  the  vagina.  When  the 
inflammation  becomes  chronic,  as  it  often  does,  the  appetite  improves 
but  the  sow  becomes  very  thin  and  weak,  and  the  disagreeable  discharge 
from  the  vagina  continues.  The  prognosis  is  not  favorable;  the  sow 
usually  dies  or  is  in  such  condition  that  it  is  not  profltable  to  keep  her. 

Treatment. — Preventive  treatment  consists  in  being  careful  in  manipu- 
lating the  passages  when  aiding  in  parturition,  and  in  preventing  the  in- 
fection of  the  parts  by  the  proper  use  of  antiseptics.  The  genital  canal 
should  be  washed  out  twice  daily  with  a two  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin. 
A gallon  or  more  of  warm  water  should  be  used,  and  it  is  best  to  admin- 
ister the  douch  with  a fountain  syringe.  A cathartic  can  be  given  if  nec- 
sesary.  If  depressed,  alcoholic  stimulants  can  be  given.  Quinine  and 
salicylate  of  soda,  twenty  grains  of  each,  and  gentian,  ten  grains,  should 
be  given  every  four  hours.  This  should  be  kept  up  until  the  fever  has 
subsided  and  the  appetite  has  returned.  Nothing  but  slops  should  be  fed. 
Tonics,  good  feed,  and  good  care  are  very  necessary  in  the  chronic  form 
of  the  disease. 


SURGICAL  DISEASES. 
CHOKING. 


Causes. — Choking  may  be  due  to  sharp  objects  when  swallowed  pene- 
trating the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  pharynx  or  oesophagus,  and  at- 


121 


tempting  to  swallow  objects  (potatoes,  roots,  etc.)  too  large  to  pass  down 
the  canal.  Paralysis  of  the  oesophagus  may  sometimes  cause  it. 

Symptoms.— If  the  choke  is  complete,  the  hog  is  unable  to  swallow 
food,  salvia  dribbles  from  the  mouth  and  tympanitis  may  develop.  If 
not  relieved,  death  will  occur  from  suffocation.  The  animal  may  get 
rid  of  the  choke  by  vomiting.  In  partial  choke  there  is  difficulty  in  swal- 
lowing and  salivation.  In  thin  hogs  if  the  object  is  lodged  in  the  pharynx, 
it  may  be  felt  by  pressing  the  pharynx  with  the  fingers.  If  the  foreign 
body  is  lodged  in  this  region,  instead  of  grunting,  the  hog  will  make  a 
shrill  sound. 

Treatment. — When  the  foreign  body  is  lodged  in  the  pharynx,  it  may 
be  pushed  forward  by  pressing  below  it  with  the  fingers,  or  a blunt  fiex- 
ible  stick  can  be  used  in  dislodging  it.  Mucilaginous  drenches  should 
be  given,  but  drenches  must  be  given  carefully,  as  there  is  some  danger 
of  their  getting  into  the  air  passages.  Unless  relieved  soon  after  the 
accident  has  occurred,  it  is  best  to  slaughter  the  animal. 

HERNIA. 

Rupture. 

Causes. — Hernia  is  a condition  in  which  a portion  of  the  intestines  or 
omentum  have  passed  through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  lie  just  be- 
neath the  skin.  Hernia  in  pigs  is  due  to  congenital  defects,  as  an  open 
umbilicus  and  a wide  inguinal  canal,  and  to  increased  pressure  on  the 
walls  of  the  abdomen  by  the  intestines  caused  by  the  pigs  piling  up  and 
lying  on  each  other,  and  to  crawling  through  a small  opening  in  the 
pen  or  fence.  Congenital  hernia  makes  its  appearance  soon  after  birth. 

UMBILICAL  HERNIA. 

Symptoms. — Umbilical  hernia  is  recognized  by  the  presence  of  a swel- 
ling or  tumor  below  the  naval  opening.  The  swelling  is  soft  and  free  from 
inflammation,  is  larger  at  one  time  than  at  another,  and  by  laying  the 
pig  on  its  back  and  pressing  downwards  on  the  swelling,  it  may  disappear* 
Pigs  with  umbilical  hernias  do  not  thrive  as  they  should  and  sometimes 
become  stunted. 


122 


Treatment. — The  treatment  of  umbilical  hernia  is  not  difficult,  and  is 
usually  followed  by  good  results.  The  method  of  operating  is  as  follows. 
The  pig  is  placed  on  its  back  and  held  there  by  an  assistant,  and  with  the 
finger  the  size  and  the  position  of  the  umbilical  opening  is  determined. 
If  the  intestines  do  not  pass  hack  into  the  abdominal  cavity  of  their  own 
accord,  they  should  be  pressed  back  with  the  fingers.  The  hernial  sack 
is  then  held  by  the  assistant  and  a strong  cord  tied  around  its  base  close 
up  to  the  abdominal  wall.  The  ligature  should  be  tied  tight  enough  to 
cut  off  the  circulation  in  the  sack  and  cause  it  to  slough  off.  The  swell- 
ing caused  by  the  ligature  is  sufiicient  to  close  the  opening,  and  in  a 
few  weeks  it  will  become  obliterated.  The  simple  ligature  will  answer  for 
a small  rupture,  but  if  large,  a multiple  ligature  must  be  used.  The  seat 
of  the  operation  is  first  washed  with  an  antiseptic  wash.  A slightly 
curved  needle  carrying  a heavy  linen  thread  that  has  been  laying  in  an 
antiseptic  solution  is  then  passed  through  the  base  of  the  sack  close  up 
to  the  abdomen,  the  thread  divided  and  each  half  tied  separately,  or  one 
half  can  be  tied  and  the  needle  carrying  the  other  half  again  passed 
through  and  tied.  The  operation  is  repeated  until  the  necessary  stitches 
have  been  taken.  In  case  of  adhesions  between  the  walls  of  the  sack 
and  its  contents,  the  hernia  cannot  be  reduced  and  it  will  be  necessary 
to  cut  into  the  sack  and  break  them  down  with  the  fingers,  then  close 
the  opening  by  stitching  across  from  muscle  to  muscle.  Strict  antiseptic 
precautions  must  be  observed  in  performing  this  operation.  The  after 
treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  pig  by  itself  for  a few  days  and  in  keep- 
ing the  part  clean. 


SCROTAL  OR  INGUNAL  HERNIA. 

Symptoms. — This  form  of  hernia  occurs  only  in  the  male.  The  tes- 
ticles lie  toward  the  bottom  of  the  bunch  which  may  be  so  large  that  it 
drags  on  the  ground.  Raising  the  hindparts  of  the  pig  will  cause  the 
bunch  to  become  smaller.  Strangulation  of  the  intestines  seldom  occurs. 
When  the  hernia  is  large,  the  pig  does  not  thrive  and  will  become 
stunted. 

Treatment. — To  relieve  this  condition  it  is  necessary  to  castrate  the 
animal.  The  pig  should  be  starved  the  day  before  being  operated  on.  The 


123 


covered  operation  is  the  one  to  be  preferred.  To  remove  the  pressure  from 
the  scrotum,  the  pig  can  be  hung  up  by  the  hind  legs  or  held  in  this 
position  by  an  assistant.  The  scrotum  is  then  washed  with  an  antiseptic 
wash  and  an  incision  made  through  its  walls.  The  operator  must  be 
careful  and  not  cut  the  covering  (tunica  vaginalis)  of  the  testicles.  The 
incision  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  testicle  and  its  coverings 
to  be  drawn  outside  the  scrotum,  and  permit  the  operator  to  break  down 
with  his  fingers  any  adhesions  present.  A needle  carrying  a thread  is  then 
passed  through  the  tunic  and  cord  as  high  up  as  possible,  the  thread  cut 
close  to  the  needle  and  the  cord  and  tunic  ligated.  The  ligature  should 
be  drawn  moderately  tight  and  the  cord  and  tunic  cut  off  about  half  an 
inch  above  it.  The  ligature  should  be  of  strong  material  and  when  not  in 
use,  it  should  be  kept  in  a vessel  containing  an  antiseptic  solution.  The 
open  operation,  reducing  the  hernia,  cutting  through  the  coverings  of  the 
testicle,  removing  it  and  closing  the  opening  the  same  as  in  umbilical 
hernia,  can  be  used.  It  is  best  to  keep  the  pig  by  itself  for  a few  days 
following  the  operation. 


VENTRAL  HERNIA. 

Scrotal  and  umbilical  hernia  are  due  to  dilation  of  openings  already 
present,  all  others  caused  by  a tear  or  break  in  the  abdominal  wall,  but  not 
in  the  skin,  are  known  as  ventral  herniae. 

Causes. — Injuries  are  the  cause  of  this  form  of  hernia.  Lying  on  one 
another  in  the  pen,  as  is  the  case  when  they  pile  up,  kicks  and  collisions 
with  blunt  objects  are  common  causes. 

Symptoms. — A favorite  seat  for  ventral  hernia  in  hogs  is  on  the  in- 
side of  the  fiank,  the  mass  of  intestines  extending  backwards  between 
the  hind  legs.  The  size  of  the  swelling  varies  and  presents  the  same  ap- 
pearance as  in  other  forms  of  rupture.  If  caused  by  a local  injury,  there 
is  more  or  less  infiammation  in  the  part.  This  symptom  is  not  noticed  in 
old  cases. 

Treatment. — Treatment  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  in  the  other  forms. 
After  reducing  the  hernia  an  incision  is  made  in  the  sack,  and  the  opening 
in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  closed  by  sutures  the  same  as  in  umbilical 
hernia. 


124 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  TESTICLES. 

Causes. — Inflammation  of  tlie  testicles  in  hogs  is  usually  due  to  ex- 
ternal violence,  such  as  blows,  kicks,  bites  from  other  animals,  wound, 
etc.  It  may  occur  as  a complication  of  some  other  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  flrst  symptom  noticed  is  a painful  swelling  of  the 
testicles  which  may  extend  to  the  surrounding  parts.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  swelling  develops  will  depend  on  the  acuteness  of  the  inflam- 
mation. Sometimes  the  animal  has  a fever  and^abscesses  may  form.  Hy- 
drocele may  occur  as  a complication  of  the  inflammation. 

Treatment. — A cathartic  of  castor  oil  should  be  givep.  Cold  or  hot 
water  fomentations  may  be  used  to  keep  down  the  inflammation.  Iodide 
of  potassium  can  be  given  in  the  feed  three  times  daily.  If  an  abscess 
forms,  it  should  be  opened  and  washed  out  once  a day  with  an  antiseptic 
wash.  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  castrate  the  animal.  This  latter 
operation  must  not  be  postponed  too  long. 

HYDROCELE.  HEMATOCELE. 

Water  in  the  Scrotum. 

Causes. — This  condition  is  due  to  injuries  to  the  testicles  and  scrotum, 
the  collection  of  fluid  forming  as  a result  of  the  inflammation  of  the  cov- 
ering of  the  testicles  (tunica  vaginalis). 

Symptoms. — Owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  fluid  (serum  or  blood)  that 
may  collect  between  the  layers  of  the  tunic,  this  condition  may  resemble 
a scrotal  hernia.  The  swelling  is  soft,  elastic,  painless,  and  conflned 
mostly  to  the  lower  part  of  the  scrotum.  The  fluctuation  of  the  fluid  can 
be  recognized  on  manipulating  the  swelling.’ 

Treatment. — This  is  usually  unnecessary,  as  it  does  not  interfere  with 
the  health  of  the  animal  or  endanger  its  life.  The  fluid  can  be  drawn  off 
with  an  aspirating  syringe  and  tincture  of  iodine  afterwards  injected 
into  the  part.  This  operation  must  be  performed  under  aseptic  condi- 
tions and  should  not  be  attempted  by  the  stockman.  The  fluid  can  be 
removed  by  castration. 


1Z5 


INFLAMMATION  OP  THE  PREPUCE. 

Causes, — This  disease  is  seen  in  barrows,  and  is  caused  by  the  secre- 
tions from  the  lining  membrane  of  the  prepuce  and  dirt  accumulating  in 
the  prepuce  or  its  side  folds.  If  infected  by  germs,  pus  will  form  and  the 
parts  become  badly  inflamed. 

Symptoms. — The  prepuce  becomes  swollen,  painful  and  hot,  and  there 
is  some  difiiculty  in  urinating.  Pressure  upon  the  part  causes  the  animal 
severe  pain  and  a disagreeable  smelling  material  may  escape.  The  con- 
tents are  usually  of  a cheesy  character. 

Treatment. — Before  treating  the  animal,  it  is  necessary  to  place  it  on 
its  back,  and  hold  it  as  quiet  as  possible.  The  outside  of  the  prepuce 
should  be  fomented  with  warm  water,  and  the  inside  of  the  pouch  washed 
with  a two  per  cent,  water  solution  of  any  of  the  coal  tar  preparations. 
If  it  is  not  possible  to  remove  the  collection  in  this  way,  an  incision 
should  be  made  in  both  sides  of  the  pouch.  All  the  material  must  be 
removed  and  the  part  thoroughly  washed. 

CASTRATION  OF  YOUNG  PIGS. 

The  age  at  which  castration  in  young  pigs  can  best  be  performed  is 
not  fully  agreed  upon.  It  may  be  performed  when  the  pig  is  a few  weeks 
old  and  still  nursing,  or  after  it  has  been  weaned,  and  when  several 
months  of  age.  Young  pigs  when  nursing  the  mother  do  not  suffer  from 
the  shock  of  the  operation  as  much  as  at  the  time  of  weaning  or  when 
older,  and  the  growth  is  not  noticeably  checked.  Castration  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  and  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  is  practiced,  but 
where  the  conditions  cannot  be  controlled  after  the  operation,  the  most 
favorable  seasons  for  operating  are  the  spring  and  fall. 

Sucking  pigs  need  not  be  prepared  for  the  operation.  In  older  ones, 
it  is  best  to  starve  them  for  about  twelve  hours  before  castrating  them, 
and  we  should  avoid  getting  the  hogs  warmed  up,  as  will  happen  If  we 
have  to  run  them  about  in  order  to  catch  them.  This  can  be  avoided  if 
the  pigs  are  shut  up  in  a small  pen  where  the  assistant  can  catch  them 
quickly.  One  person  will  be  able  to  confine  the  pigs  for  the  operation. 
If  the  pig  is  small,  the  hind  legs  can  be  held  with  the  hands  and  the 


126 


head  and  fore  legs  between  the  knees;  or  it  can  be  laid  on  its  side  or 
back  and  the  hind  legs  drawn  well  forward. 

The  operation  is  very  simple.  The  operator  should  provide  himself 
with  plenty  of  antiseptic  solution.  It  is  best  to  wash  the  scrotum  with  a 
two  per  cent,  solution  of  some  coal  tar  product,  and  the  knife,  needles, 
ligature,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  a similar  solution  when  not  in  use  in 
order  to  prevent  infection.  The  testicle  is  grasped  between  the  thumb  and 
fingers  and  pushed  against  the  walls  of  the  scrotum.  An  incision  is  made 
In  the  scrotum  and  tunic  of  the  testicle  parallel  to  the  middle  line  or 
raphe,  and  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  to  one  side.  The  incision  should 
be  made  with  one  stroke  of  the  knife  and  large  enough  to  allow  the 
testicle  to  slip  out.  In  young  pigs  the  cord  of  the  testicle  may  be  broken 
off  and  removed  at  one  jerk.  In  older  ones  it  can  be  severed  by  cutting 
and  scraping  with  a dull  knife.  The  opposite  testicle  is  then  removed  in 


The  emasculator.  The  best  instiniment  for  castrating  old  and  young. 


a Similar  manner.  Before  liberating  the  pig,  the  incisions  in  the  scrotum 
should  be  examined  and  if  they  do  not  extend  to  the  very  lowest  part  of 
the  scrotum,  they  must  be  enlarged.  This  will  allow  the  blood  and  pus 
to  drain  off  instead  of  collecting  in  the  part.  The  wound  requires  no 
after  treatment.  The  pig  should  not  be  allowed  to  wallow  in  ponds  or 
remain  in  dirty,  dusty  or  muddy  pens. 

The  operation  in  the  boar  with  the  excepting  of  severing  the  testicular 
cord  is  the  same.  The  cord  in  old  hogs  is  large  and  a dangerous  hem- 
orrhage may  occur  if  cut  off  with  a sharp  knife.  Scraping  the  cord  in  two 
with  a dull  knife,  if  properly  performed,  will  so  crush  the  blood  vessels 
that  little  bleeding  occurs.  Another  method  sometimes  used  is  ligating 
it  before  cutting  it  off.  The  best  instrument  to  use  is  the  emasculator. 
This  instrument  will  so  crush  the  ends  of  the  blood  vessels  that  no 
hemorrhage  follows  the  operation. 


127 


COMPLICATIONS  FOLLOWING  CASTRATION. 

This  operation  is  not  free  from  complications.  Observations  have 
proven  that  they  are  more  common  when  the  work  is  done  carelessly,  and 
no  attention  paid  to  antiseptic  precautions,  than  if  the  proper  care  and 
antiseptic  precautions  are  observed. 

Hernia  is  a rare  complication  of  castration,  but  may  be  caused  by  jerk- 
ing the  cord  too  hard  when  breaking  it  off,  or  from  an  injury  to  the  pig 
while  handling  it.  When  operating  we  should  be  prepared  to  treat  all 
cases  of  hernia,  whether  present  at  the  time  of  the  operation  or  resulting 
from  it.  The  covered  operation  should  be  used  for  scrotal  hernia. 

Hemorrhage  is  not  a dangerous  complication  in  pigs.  In  old  hogs 
it  will  occur  if  precautions  are  not  taken  against  it.  Excessive  bleeding 
can  be  stopped  by  picking  up  the  stump  of  the  cord  and  ligating  it. 
Packing  the  scrotum  with  clean  cotton  and  suturing  the  incision  in  its 
walls,  may  stop  it.  The  cotton  should  be  left  in  the  scrotum  for  at  least 
a day. 

Tumor  formation  in  the  scrotum  is  a common  complication  following 
castration.  . These  tumors  are  sometimes  enormous  in  proportion 
to  'the  size  of  the  pig  and  grow  rapidly.  If  large,  the  pig  does  not 
thrive  and  becomes  stunted.  It  differs  from  scrotal  hernia  and  hydrocele 
in  that  it  is  very  hard. 

The  causes  are  infection  of  the  parts  with  germs,  either  at  the  time 
of  operating  or  following  it,  and  leaving  the  stump  of  t»he  cord  too  long. 

The  treatment  is  to  dissect  the  tumor  out.  This  method  of  treatment 
will  not  be  successful  unless  all  the  growth  is  removed.  The  operation  is 
quite  painful  and  frequently  the  pig  dies  as  a result  of  it.  If  the  tumor  is 
small  and  the  operation  skilfully  performed,  the  results  are  usually  good. 

CASTRATION  OP  CRIPTORCHIDS  OR  “ORIGINALS.” 

In  “original”  pigs  the  testicles  fail  to  make  their  appearance  by  de- 
scending through  the  inguinal  canal  into  the  scrotum.  Usually  but  one 
testicle  fails  to  descend  into  the  bag.  It  may  be  found  in  any  part  of 
the  abdominal  cavity,  but  in  most  cases  is  situated  in  the  region  of  the 
flank. 


128 


The  animal  should  be  prepared  for  the  operation  by  starving  it  for 
about  twelve  hours.  The  operator’s  hands  must  be  clean  and  the  anti- 
septic solutions  and  instruments  gotten  ready  the  same  as  in  castrating 
a straight  pig.  The  pig  is  laid  on  its  side  upon  the  floor  or  a board,  the 
hind  parts  slightly  elevated,  and  held  there  by  an  assistant.  The  oper- 
ator stands  at  the  back  and  clips  the  hair  from  the  flank.  An  incision 
is  made  high  up  in  the  flank  and  midway  between  the  point  of  the  hip 
and  the  last  rib,  and  large  enough  to  introduce  the  Angers,  or  if  necessary, 
the  hand.  When  the  testicle  is  found  it  is  cut  off  with  the  emasculator, 
or  the  cord  ligated  and  then  cut.  The  incision  in  the  walls  of  the  abdo- 
men is  closed  with  sutures  placed  about  an  inch  apart.  The  hog  should  be 
kept  by  itself  and  the  stitches  removed  in  eight  or  ten  days. 

SPAYING. 

Spaying  is  performed  for  the  same  reason  as  castration,  and,  while  it 
was  practiced  quite  generally  twenty  years  ago,  it  is  seldom  done  now. 
The  necessity  for  the  operation  has  passed  away.  It  is  an  operation  that 
is  profltable  where  sows  are  to  be  kept  until  a year  or  more  of  age.  Under 
the  present  method  of  marketing  at  eight  and  nine  months  it  is  more 
profltable  to  permit  the  sows  to  advance  to  one  or  two  months’  pregnancy 
rather  than  spay  and  lose  a short  time  in  checked  growth,  and  run  the 
risk  of  a little  loss. 

When  it  is  decided  to  spay,  the  pigs  are  prepared  for  the  operation  as 
for  castration.  They  should  be  three  months  old  and  weight  from  thirty  to 
sixty  pounds.  The  pig  is  caught  and  held  by  two  men,  upon  an  inclined 
board,  the  head  being  lowest.  The  operator  stands  at  the  back  and  clips 
the  hair  from  the  flank  over  a space  about  two  inches  wide  and  three 
inches  long.  An  incision  is  made  about  midway  between  the  point  of  the 
hip  and  last  rib  and  an  inch  below  the  points  of  the  lumbar  vetrebrae. 
The  incision  should  be  just  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  finger.  The 
forefinger  of  the  left  hand  is  introduced  and  follows  the  back.  The  ovaries 
will  be  found  almost  directly  downward,  suspended  by  a short  ligament. 
They  will  feel  like  a raspberry  or  blackberry  and  can  be  mistaken  for 
nothing  else.  If  the  ovary  can  not  be  found  at  once,  pass  the  finger  back- 
ward toward  the  bladder  and  search  for  the  uterus  (pig  bed)  and  follow 
it  forward  to  its  termination  at  the  ovary.  Remove  the  ovary  by  tearing 


it  off  with  the  the  finger  or  cutting  it  off  with  dull  scissors.  The  lower 
ovary  may  be  removed  through  the  same  opening.  Close  the  outside  wound 
with  two  stitches,  using  silk  thread  or  silk  fishing  line. 

The  operation  may  be  performed  througn  the  middle  line  of  the  belly, 
the  same  as  in  spaying  the  bitch.  The  method  is  to  hang  the  pig  up  by 
a gambrel  with  a loop  tor  each  hock,  make  the  incision  about  two  inches 
in  front  of  the  pubis  and  remove  the  ovaries  as  already  indicated.  This 
opening  is  closed  by  two  sets  of  stitches,  one  in  the  deep  muscles  and  a 
second  in  the  skin.  One  of  the  objections  to  this  method  is  the  danger  of 
small  herniae. 

In  either  method  the  part  should  be  prepared  by  washing  with  carbolic 
acid  and  the  hands  and  instruments  should  be  clean.  The  loss  from 
operating  is  slight. 


PROLAPSE  OF  THE  ANUS. 

Causes. — Permanent  protrusion  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
rectum  through  the  anal  opening  is  called  prolapse  of  the  anus.  The 
cause  is  violent  straining  from  constipation,  diarrhea,  or  anything  that 
will  bring  about  a weakening  of  the  spincter  muscle  of  the  anus.  Some- 
times it  is  seen  among  breeding  sows,  due  to  their  eating  cinders  and 
pieces  of  wood,  and  the  consequent  constipated  condition  of  the  bowels. 

Symptoms. — In  some  cases  only  a few  folds  of  the  mucous  membrane 
appear  behind  the  anus,  in  others  forms  a fair  sized  tumor  rather  hemi- 
spherical in  shape,  red  and  slightly  painful.  When  exposed  to  the  air 
for  a time,  it  becomes  swollen  and  darker  in  color,  and  finely  become  dry 
and  the  surface  cracked.  In  time  it  will  slough  off. 

Treatment. — Before  replacing  the  prolapsed  tissues,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane should  be  bathed  with  warm  water  for  a few  minutes  in  order  to 
reduce  the  inflammation  and  clean  it.  The  protruded  portion  can  be  re- 
placed by  pressing  on  it  with  the  finger.  If  caused  by  constipation  a lax- 
ative of  castor  oil  should  be  given  and  soft  food  fed  the  animal.  Some- 
times the  prolapse  will  again  occur  and  need  to  be  replaced.  If  badly 
swollen,  it  is  best  to  bathe  it  with  an  astringent  solution  (five  per  cent, 
alum  solution).  To  retain  it,  a stitch  can  be  taken  across  the  anal  open- 
ing. If  the  protruded  part  becomes  injured  or  sloughs,  it  can  be  cut  off 
and  the  margin  of  the  bowel  sewed  to  the  margin  of  the  anus. 


130 


INFECTIOUS  AND  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 


HOG  CHOLERA  AND  SWINE  PLAGUE. 

When  and  where  hog  cholera  had  its  origin  no  one  will  ever  be  able 
lO  positively  determine.  It  is  not  an  old  disease  in  the  sense  of  having 
Deen  known  and  described  for  a long  time,  like  glanders  or  anthrax. 
Neither  is  it  such  new  disease  as  some  would  have  us  believe.  The  oft- 
repeated  assertion  ol  old  farmers  that  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago 
ifie  disease  was  unknown  is  merely  evidence  that  the  disease  was  not  so 
generally  distributed  throughout  the  country.  According  to  earlier  inves- 
tigations, outbreaks  of  disease  occurred  in  Ohio  in  1833,  again  in  South 
Carolina  in  1837,  in  Georgia  in  1838,  and  in  Alabama,  Florida,  Illinois 
and  Indiana  in  1840  that  are  believed  to  have  been  cholera.  As  close 
observations  were  not  made  or  records  kept  upon  stock  diseases  at  that 
time,  no  doubt  many  outbreaks  escaped  unrecorded. 

It  is  not  known  from  whence  the  disease  came;  some  writers  claim 
that  it  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  importation  of  hogs  from 
England,  while  others  hold  that  the  germs  are  native  to  our  soil  and  only 
need  a favorable  opportunity  to  produce  the  disease,  the  same  as  in 
black  leg. 

Hog  choler.a  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  this  State  from  Ohio 

by  the  driving  of  hogs  to  the  southeastern  and  southern  counties  for  the 

purpose  of  fattening.  At  first  the  disease  was  confined"  to  a narrow 

tract  along  the  Ohio  River,  but  the  disease  gradually  spread  northward 

( 

and  westward  until  it  reached  Terre  Haute  in  1847  and  1848.  The  first 
agricultural  report,  published  in  1859  and  1860,  contains  a most  interesting 
article  upon  this  disease  and  dwells  upon  the  heavy  losses  sustained  in 
the  'southern  part  of  the  State.  The  history  of  the  spread  of  this  disease 
— following  the  lines  of  commerce — is  strong  evidence  that  it  is  not  one 
indigenous  to  our  soil.  Every  county  has  now  been  invaded  and  some  of 
them  very  frequently,  so  that  it  may  be  said  that  we  now  have  a general 
infection. 


131 


LOSSES. 

The  total  loss  to  the  swine  industry  in  the  United  States  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  $10,000,000  to  $25,000,000  annually,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  in  some  years  the  loss  greatly  exceeds  the  latter  fig- 
ure. In  1896  it  is  probable  that  the  loss  was  between  $45,000,000  and  $50,000- 
000.  The  annual  losses  vary  between  $1,250,000  and  $5,000,000  in  our  own 
State. 

■ According  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  the  losses  in  the  different  years 


have  been  as  follows: 

Year.  Number. 

1883  288,286 

1884  351,156 

1885  326,555  ' 

1886  402,164 

1887  512,692 

1888  326,359 

1889  247,114 

1890  256,991 

1895  278,143 

1896  580,267 

1897  899,457 

1898  372,868 

1899  .' 553,930 

1901  236,870 

1902  197,491 

1903  295,672 


The  average  loss  for  the  sixteen  years  has  been  415,076,  having  a 
value  of  more  than  $2,000,000.  This  loss  will  not  be  reduced  to  any  ap- 
preciable degree  in  the  near  future.  We  know  more  about  the  cause  of 
tne  disease,  more  about  the  disease  itself,  more  about  its  relation  to 
'•anitary  surroundings,  but  we  do  not  know  more  about  treatment  nor 
much  more  about  practical  preventive  measures  than  was  known  ten 
• years  ago.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  proper  sanitary  surroundings,  pure 
food  and  water  will  do  much  to  avert  the  losses,  but  these  conditions  will 
T-'ot  be  provided  except  by  the  few  who  appreciate  the  advantage  of  pre- 


132 


venting  loss.  Moreover,  these  diseases  can  not  be  wholly  prevented  by 
the  best  hygienic  measures  that  can  be  provided,  which  tends  to  discour- 
age those  who  do  try,  and  makes  others  more  negligent.  Knowing  about 
hog  cholera  is  like  knowing  about  the  grip — it  does  not  follow  that  we 
can  control  all  the  conditions  that  distribute  the  germs  of  disease. 

TWO  DISEASES. 

Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  have  been  made  the  subjects  or  special 
Investigation  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the 
greater  part  of  our  knowledge  of  these  diseases  comes  through  this  source. 
There  is  also  much  credit  due  to  numerous  individuals  who  have  studied 
these  affections.  Hog  cholera  has  been  known  for  a long  time  and  is 
recognized  as  being  identical  with  the  disease  called  swine  fever  in 
England.  Swine  plague  was  not  recognized  until  about  1890.  These  two 
diseases  are  the  cause  of  practically  all  of  our  great  losses  among  swine. 
In  some  outbreaks  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  which  is  present  and  in  others 
<-he  two  affections  may  exist  in  the  same  herd. 

There  is  a specific  germ  for  each  of  these  diseases.  Hog  cholera  is 
caused  by  the  germ  or  bacillus  of  hog  cnolera  and  swine  plague  by  the 
germ  or  bacillus  of  swine  plague.  These  germs  differ  in  size,  shape, 
activity,  method  of  growth,  resistance  to  external  conditions,  and  in  their 
effects  upon  the  body.  These  differences  are  recognized  by  those  working 
with  the  disease,  but  of  course  can  not  be  seen  without  the  special  equip- 
nent  found  in  laboratories.  These  differences  may  be  briefiy  stated  as 
follows: 

The  hog  cholera  bacillus  is  a small  plant  about  1-25,000  to  1-15,00^  of 
an  inch  long. 

The  swine  plague  bacillus  is  only  about  one-half  of  this  size. 

The  hog  cholera  bacillus  is  shaped  like  a short  cylinder,  rounded  at  each 
-,nd,  and  has  a number  of  delicate  projections  from  the  sides  and  ends 
like  hairs. 

The  swine  plague  germ  is  oval  and  smooth. 

The  hog  cholera  germs  have  distinct  movement. 

The  swine  pla^e  germs  have  no  movement. 

The  hog  cholera  germs  stain  uniformily. 


133 


The  swine  plague  germs  will  stain  only  at  each  end. 

Hog  cholera  germs  will  live  in  the  soil  from  two  to  three  months. 

Swine  plague  germs  will  live  from  four  to  six  days. 

Hog  cholera  germs  will  live  in  water  from  two  to  four  months. 

Swine  plague  germs  live  only  from  ten  to  fifteen  days. 

When  hogs  are  fed  upon  cholera  germs  they  will  become  diseased. 

When  hogs  are  fed  upon  swine  plague  germs  they  do  not  contract 
disease. 

When  hogs  are  inoculated  with  cholera  germs  the  disease  affects  the 
intestines. 

When  hogs  are  inoculated  with  swine  plague  germs  the  lungs  are 
affected. 

There  are  other  differences  between  these  germs,  but  those  enumerated 
should  be  suflacient  to  satisfy  the  general  reader.  The  cause  of  hog 
cholera  is  always  the  bacillus  of  hog  cholera  and  of  swine  plague  the 
bacillus  of  swine  plague,  and  no  case  of  either  of  these  diseases  occurs 
without  the  germ  being  present.  Other  causes  may  produce  diseases 
with  similar  symptoms  and  may  thus  be  mistaken  for  these  diseases. 
Other  causes  may  so  weaken  the  system  as  to  make  the  animal  easily 
susceptible  to  these  diseases  or  external  conditions  may  be  favorable  for 
the  distribution  of  the  germs.  These  are  secondary  causes,  but  are  of 
great  importance. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  GERMS  UPON  THE  BODY. 

Hog  Cholera. — The  germs  of  hog  cholera  are  found  in  the  blood  and  in 
the  internal  organs.  They  grow  in  bunches  and  as  they  are  carried  along 
in  the  blood  stream  to  the  small  arteries  and  capillaries  they  act  as  little 
plugs  to  shut  olf  the  circulation  in  the  part  supplied  by  the  little  vessel. 
At  each  place  the  circulation  is  thus  arrested  we  have  a small  red  blotch, 
so  frequently  seen  in  the  skin,  meat,  fat,  and  viscera  of  hogs  that  die  of 
cholera.  These  blotches  are  so  characteristic  that  meat  inspectors  have  no 
difficulty  in  detecting  cholera  carcasses  while  hanging  upon  the  gambrel. 
Another  characteristic  is  that  these  blotches  become  redder  the  longei 
che  time  after  death,  while  blotches  from  other  causes  become  paler. 

The  spleen  or  milt,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  becomes  enlarged, 
softened  and  filled  with  dark  blood. 


6 


134 


The  intestine  is  the  seat  of  more  or  less  inflammatory  change,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Peyerian  patches  and  along  the  lymph  tracts.  The  caecum 
is  especially  liable  to  these  changes.  In  all  cases  in  which  the  disease 


Ulcers  in  the  intestine,  in  cholera. 


continues  for  some  days  there  is  ulceration.  The  ulcers  may  be  small 
like  a millet  seed  or  be  as  large  as  a dime.  They  may  be  irregular,  as  in 
cases  in  which  they  follow  the  lymph  spaces.  The  edge  of  the  ulcer  pro- 


135 


jects  above  the  surrounding  mucous  membrane.  The  appearance  of  the 
suriace  may  be  yellowish,  reddish,  or  brownish.  The  edges  are  not  clean- 
cut,  but  are  granular.  The  ulcer  may  be  only  in  the  mucous  coat  or  in  the 
mucous  and  muscular,  byt  it  is  rarely  perforating.  Hemorrhages  some- 
times occur  as  a result  of  invading  an  artery  or  rein.  The  lymphatic 
glands  along  the  intestine  are  always  red  and  swollen  and  those  in  other 
parts  are  enlarged.  The  contents  of  the  intestine  are  nearly  always  black 
and  tarry  and  have  a very  foul  odor.  In  some  cases  the  hog  will  have 
eaten  clay  or  other  earth,  causing  very  hard,  dry  faeces.  The  stomach  is 
not  often  seriously  affected.  The  lungs  are  either  not  affected  or  only 
secondarily.  I'hey  usually  collapse  at  death. 

Swine  Plague. — In  swine  plague  the  germs  are  more  diffused  through 
the  circulation,  but  may  cause  the  same  red  patches. The  parts  attacked  are 
the  lungs  primarily,  and  other  organs  as  complications.  The  effect  in  the 
lungs  is  to  cause  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  The  mucous  membrane  be- 
comes congested  and  thickened,  blocking  certain  areas,  and  sepsis  or  pus 
formation  occurs,  making  abscess  cavities  of  greater  or  less  size.  These 
pneumonic  areas  may  be  small  and  numerous  or  a few  and  quite  large. 
It  the  hog  should  die  early  in  the  disease  the  appearance  will  be  that  of 
pneumonia,  but  if  late  these  abscesses  will  have  formed  and  they  will 
contain  pus  or  cheesy  material.  The  other  organs  are  involved  secondarily. 

It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  hog  cholera  affects  the  intestines  pri- 
marily and  that  the  disease  may  extend  to  the  lungs,  and  that  swine 
plague  begins  with  the  respiratory  organs  and  progresses  toward  the 
intestines.  Both  diseases  may  be  present  in  the  same  subject  and  the 
lesions  are  not  always  typical  and  a diagnosis  can  not  be  made  by 
the  eye  alone.  This  is  recognized  by  the  inspectors  of  the  meat  inspection 
service  and  now  all  cases  are  reported  as  hog  cholera,  while  formerly  they 
divided  them. 

THE  LIFE  OP  THE  GERMS  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  BODY. 

The  general  behavior  and  effects  of  the  germs  inside  of  the  body  are 
fairly  well  known,  but  the  history  of  the  germ  outside  of  the  body  still 
remains  to  be  determined.  The  experiments  which  have  been  made  with 
the  hog  cholera  germ  have  not  shown  it  to  be  able  to  live  for  more  than 


136 


a few  months  in  soil  or  water,  and  the  results  of  the  work  with  the  swine 
plague  germ  have  indicated  that  it  can  only  live  about  half  as  long. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  are  at  variance  with  the  experience 
of  any  one  who  has  had  much  field  work  to  do.  It  is  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence  to  have  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  follow  the  turning  of  hogs 
upon  a field  where  others  had  sickened,  died  and  been  buried  a year 
prior.  Such  a result  often  occurs  after  hogs  have  rooted  out  and  eatei^ 
parts  of  carcasses  that  have  been  buried  for  a long  time.  The  writer  saw 
a typical  outbreak  of  cholera  follow  the  turning  of  hogs  into  an  old  house 
where  others  had  sickened  and  died  three  years  prior.  After  the  first 
herd  had  died  the  doorways  were  blocked  with  rails  and  no  stock  had 
access  to  the  place  until  three  years  later.  The  bedding  had  never  been 
removed  and  in  two  weeks  after  use  by  the  second  herd,  thirty  out  of 
thirty-six  hogs  were  sick,  and  it  was  the  only  outbreak  in  that  vicinity. 
People  have  related  many  cases  similar  to  the  above,  the  period  sometimes 
being  longer  and  at  other  times  being  shorter.  Again  we  may  note  the 
turning  of  fresh  hogs  into  a pen  where  dead  hogs  have  just  been  removed 
and  no  disease  follow.  We  can  not  explain  all  these  apparently  inconsis- 
tent cases  upon  the  evidence  from  our  experimental  data. 

The  germs  of  some  diseases,  as  glanders,  can  live  for  only  a short  time 
outside  of  the  body,  and  hence  can  only  be  conveyed  by  close  contact  or 
by  animals  being  placed  in  the  stalls  or  pens  where  other  cases  of  the 
disease  have  been.  Such  diseases  can  be  stamped  out  by  slaughter  and 
rigid  quarantine.  Hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  do  not  belong  to  that 
class  of  diseases.  In  other  diseases  of  which  anthrax  is  a type,  the  germs 
can  live  and  multiply  outside  of  the  body  for  a long  time  and  be  able  to 
produce  the  disease  when  a favorable  opportunity  arises.  Anthrax  has 
been  known  to  occur  as  a result  of  eating  the  forage  from  the  graves  of 
former  victims.  There  are  observations  which  seem  to  show  that  the 
germs  must  have  lived  in  the  ground  for  at  least  seventeen  years.  The 
experiments  with  the  hog  cholera  germs  do  not  show  them  to  possess 
the  same  resistive  qualities  attributed  to  anthrax,  but  there  are  many 
who  do  believe  that  they  have  a very  similar  life  history  in  nature.  If 
such  be  the  case  then  the  problem  of  how  to  control  the  malady  becomes 
all  the  more  difficult. 


137 


SIMILARITY  TO  TYPHOID  IN  THHE  HUMAN  SUBJECT. 

Our  present  knowledge  of  the  germ  tends  to  show  that  in  many  re- 
spects its  life  history  is  like  that  of  the  typhoid  fever  germ.  No  one 
would  claim  that  the  diseases  are  identical  or  that  typhoid  is  as  virulent 
or  contagious  as  hog  cholera,  but  there  are  points  of  resemblance.  The 
lesions  in  the  intestines,  lymphatic  glands  and  spleen,  in  the  two  diseases, 
are  so  much  alike  that  cholera  is  often  called  pig  typhoid.  When  blood 
from  a typhoid  patient  is  placed  in  a culture  of  typhoid  germs  it  causes 
them  to  cling  together.  When  blood  from  a cholera  hog  is  placed  in  a 
culture  of  cholera  germs  it  causes  a similar  reaction.  Typhoid  germs 
are  rarely  ever  found  outside  of  the  body  and  stools  of  a sick  patient, 
but  it  is  well  established  that  most  epidemics  have  their  origin  in  the  water 
supply.  Epidemics  of  typhoid  fever  occur  in  cities,  and  no  matter  what 
may  be  the  source  of  the  water  supply — river,  lake  or  wells — it  will  be 
found  that  it  is  polluted  with  the  discharges  from  people.  Typhoid  fever 
can  always  be  arrested  by  securing  pure  water.  The  researches  of' the 
Indiana  Experimental  Station  have  demonstrated  that  cholera  is  also 
water  borne,  in  a series  of  townships  in  this  State  it  was  found  that 
from  33  to  200  per  cent,  more  hogs  were  lost  along  the  rivers  and  streams 
than  at  a distance  from  three  to  ten  miles  away  from  the  stream.  This 
could  be  attributed  to  the  more  general  use  of  surface  water.  No  such 
conclusion  must  be  reached  that  the  disease  is  only  water  borne,  for  we 
have  seen  the  disease  pass  up  the  river  as  well  as  down  and  the  pigs  In 
a whole  section  of  the  country,  from  one  to  three  miles  wide,  and  from 
five  to  seven  miles  long,  become  affected  simultaneously  after  a rain. 

Less  is  known  concerning  the  life  history  of  the  germs  of  swine  plague 
than  of  those  or  hog  cholera;  its  spread  is  less  liable  to  be  influenced  by 
hygenic  measures  and  it  seems  to  be  air  borne.  Germs  very  much  like 
the  swine  plague  bacillus  have  been  found  in  the  lungs  of  other  animals, 
^f  upon  further  investigation  they  should  be  found  to  be  the  same,  it  will 
add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  affection  and  make  us  less 
ready  to  claim  that  the  disease  can  be  eradicated  by  sanitary  measures. 


138 


THE  WAYS  BY  WHICH  THE  GERMS  ENTER  THE  BODY. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  to  determine  how  the  germs  find 
their  way  into  the  body  to  cause  disease.  Hogs  fed  upon  the  carcasses 
of  animals  affected  with  cholera  develop  a virulent  form  of  the  disease 
in  a short  time.  The  intestines  become  the  seat  of  typical  lesions,  while 
other  parts  are  not  seriously  affected.  If  the  germs  be  placed  upon  food 
or  in  drinking  w’ater,  they  will  produce  a like  result.  These  experiments 
show  that  if  the  germs  be  ingested  with  the  food  or  water,  they  will  de- 
velop and  produce  the  disease. 

The  germs  have  been  sprayed  in  the  air  and  the  hogs  made  to  inhale 
them,  also  injected  into  the  windpipe,  but  the  disease  did  not  develop, 
which  may  be  taken  to  indicate  that  in  nature  the  disease  germs  do  not 
find  a point  for  development  in  the  lungs,  or  at  any  rate  not  as  a primary 
focus. 

The  germs  have  been  inoculated  beneath  the  skin,  but  it  is  only  when 
very  large  numbers  are  used  that  disease  occurs.  This  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  hog  does  not  contract  the  disease  from  inoculation  as 
by  the  bite  of  the  louse  and  injuries. 

A similar  line  of  experiments  conducted  with  swine  plague  shows 
that  it  does  not  cause  trouble  when  swallowed,  but  does  do  so  easily 
when  made  to  inhale  air  containing  the  germs  or  when  germs  are  injected 
into  the  windpipe.  The  lungs  are  the  primary  seat  of  the  affection,  and 
thus  differs  from  hog  cholera.  Inoculation  experiments,  both  subcuta- 
neous and  intravenous,  require  such  large  numbers  of  germs  that  it  would 
seem  that  natural  inoculation  by  the  louse  bite  could  hardly  prove  fatal. 

The  conclusions  from  these  experiments  are  that  in  nature,  cholera 
is  caused  by  the  ingestion  of  the  germs  with  the  food  or  water,  and  swine 
plague  by  inhalation. 


ACCESSORY  CAUSES. 

We  consider  all  those  factors  which  lower  the  resistance  of  the  animal 
or  which  disseminate  or  propagate  the  germs  as  being  accessory  causes. 

Among  the  causes  which  tend  to  lower  resistance,  we  may  consider 
feeding,  shelter  and  breeding.  The  disease  is  often  attributed  to  the 


139 


feeding  of  green  corn,  too  much  corn,  etc.  In  1896,  the  Iowa  Weather 
Bureau  published  a map  showing  the  distribution  of  the  disease  in  the 
State.  It  was  found  that  the  greatest  losses  were  sustained  in  those 
counties  where  corn  constituted  an  almost  exclusive  diet.  The  lowest 
death  rate  was  sustained  in  those  countries  in  which  dairying  was  an  im- 
portant industry  and  milk  was  largely  used  as  feed.  This  was  taken 
as  confirmatory  evidence  of  the  bad  influence  of  a corn  diet.  In  1897, 
the  statistics  showed  that  the  losses  were  just  the  reverse  from  those  in 
1896;  that  the  pigs  fed  upon  corn  suffered  least.  This  disproved  the  con- 
clusion of  the  previous  year.  As  farmers  feed  in  essentially  the  same  way 
each  year,  it  would  be  but  rational  to  expect  that  the  losses  would  be 
about  the  same  if  the  feed  was  a causative  factor.  Neither  is  the  sudden 
changing  of  feed  a' causative  factor,  as  we  have  not  yet  had  a single  re-, 
port  of  an  outbreak  of  cholera  at  any  experiment  station  as  a result  of 
a sudden  and  radical  change  of  feed.  The  feeding  of  green  corn  or  all 
corn  can  not  be  considered  a wise  health  measure.  When  green  corn  is 
fed  it  should  be  with  the  same  precautions  as  in  the  feeding  of  cattle — 

beginning  gradually  with  old  corn  and  increasing  the  quantity  as  the  pig 

is  able  to  stand  it.  This  will  avoid  the  diarrhea  and  intestinal  irritation 
which  prepares  the  way  for  the  cholera  germ.  Any  injudicious  manage- 
ment in  any  kind  of  feeding  will  have  the  same  effect.  The  hog  needs 
a variety  of  food  for  strength  and  health  and  those  best  prepared  to  fur- 
nish it  will  probably  fare  best. 

The  hog  needs  some  shelter;  it  need  not  be  elaborate,  something  to 
break  the  scorching  sun  or  beating  storm,  to  have  dry  quarters  in  which 
lO  sleep  and  a clean  floor  from  which  to  eat.  The  strawstack  is  the 
poorest  shelter  that  can  be  provided,  as  it  furnishes  a place  in  which  to 
pile  up  and  be  buried,  overheated  when  lying  down  and  makes  a fit 
victim  for  cold.  The  hog  does  not  need  much  bedding.  A tight  wooden 

floor  upon  which  to  feed  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  from  economical 

considerations,  and  will  become  equally  as  popular  from  the  health  stand- 
point when  its  value  becomes  better  understood. 

The  breed  of  the  hog  makes  no  difference  to  the  cholera  germ.  The 
objection  often  made  by  the  farmer  that  pure-bred  hogs  are  less  resistive 
to  disease  is  not  well  founded  in  fact.  The  razor-back,  with  digestive 
powers  equal  to  any  task  that  may  be  imposed  upon  them,  will  succumb 


140 


to  tlie  diseases  the  same  as  the  finely  bred  Berkshire  or  Poland-China, 
No  breed  of  hogs  is  immune  to  the  disease,  and  the  advice  to  cross  our 
better  bred  swine  with  the  southern  hog  is  ill  founded.  All  the  advantage 
which  they  possess  is  in  the  fact  that  they  are  not  so  fat  and  all  the  vigor 
that  will  prevail  against  the  disease  can  be  obtained  by  using  care  in  the 
handling  of  the  improved  breeds. 

Among  the  agencies  which  may  carry  the  germs  are  streams,  wind, 
birds,  dogs,  people  passing  from  one  farm  to  another,  buying  hogs  from 
infected  herds,  shipping  hogs  in  unclean  cars,  exhibiting  at  fairs,  etc. 
Some  of  these  means  are  not  within  our  control,  but  many  of  them  are, 
and  a proper  understanding  of  them  should  lead  us  to  prevent  thousands 
of  cases. 

The  germs  of  the  disease  may  be  carried  from  one  place  to  another  by 
birds  of  carrion.  It  is  a common  experience  with  farmers  that  hogs  can 
not  be  raised  upon  a farm  where  there  is  a buzzard  roost.  I have  learned 
of  isolated  outbreaks  of  the  disease  occurring  from  buzzards  alighting 
to  eat  the  carcass  of  a colt  or  other  animal,  and  soon  after  the  hogs  gain 
access  to  the  same  place  and  contract  the  disease. 

Dogs  prowling  about  at  night  carry  pieces  of  dead  animals  for  a mile 
or  more,  across  pasture  fields,  feed  lots,  leaving  pieces  here  and  there  to 
be  devoured  by  some  unfortunate  animal. 

Men  may  carry  the  disease  from  place  to  place  upon  their  boots,  or 
particles  of  dirt  remain  upon  the  wagon  wheel,  and  when  dry,  drop  off  in 
another  lot.  It  should  be  a general  rule  never  to  allow  agents  for  hog 
cholera  cures  to  come  near  a pig  lot  where  there  are  healthy  hogs.  They 
go  about  diseased  hogs  and  do  not  use  the  precautions  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  infection. 

Under  some  circumstances,  I believe  the  wind  may  be  the  bearer  of 
germs.  If  the  germs  be  distributed  along  a public  highway  by  the  ren- 
dering wagon  and  become  mixed  with  the  dust  it  is  possible  and  alto- 
gether probable  that  they  may  be  blown  on  the  pasture  or  on  the  feed  lot 
and  thus  convey  disease.  I have  seen  a few  outbreaks  continue  in  one  di- 
rection for  several  days  after  a constant  prevailing  wind  from  the  south- 
west. The  evidence  in  this  case  seemed  to  point  to  the  wind  as  the  dis- 
tributing agent.  In  such  cases  the  germs  fall  in  the  water  or  are  taken  in 
with  the  food. 


141 


WATER  SUPPLY. 

Undoubtedly  a very  important  agency  in  the  distribution  of  the  dis- 
ease are  the  streams  and  surface  water  supplies.  This  relationship  was 
under  investigation  for  a number  of  years.  In  1895  the  60  townships  bor- 
dering upon  the  Wabash,  from  Cass  County  to  its  mouth,  show  a loss  of 
150  head  out  of  every  1,000  produced;  47  townships  in  the  second  tier  re- 
moved from  the  river  show  a loss  of  100  head  per  1,000*,  or  50  per  cent, 
more  loss  in  the  first  tier  than  in  the  second  tier.  In  1896  the  bordering 
townships  lost  294  hogs  per  1,000,  the  second  tier  205  and  the  third  tier 
160.  In  other  words,  the  loss  was  34.4  per  cent,  more  in  the  first  tier 
than  in  the  second  tier,  and  83.8  per  cent,  more  than  in  the  third  tier. 

In  1895,  44  townships  bordering  upon  the  north  fork  of  the  White 
River  lost  138  hogs  per  1,000,  and  42  townships  in  the  second  tier  65  hogs 
per  1,000,  or  112  per  cent,  greater  loss  in  the  townships  bordering  upon 
the  river  than  in  those  a few  miles  removed.  In  1896,  the  loss  in  the  first 
tier  was  231  per  1,000,  in  the  second  tier  156,  and  in  the  third  tier  75,  or 
48  per  cent,  greater  loss  in  the  first  than  in  the  second,  and  208  per  cent, 
greater  than  in  the  third.  In  1896,  44  townships  bordering  upon  the  south 
fork  of  the  White  River  lost  200  hogs  per  1,000;  58  townships  in  the 
second  tier  lost  150,  and  42  townships  in  the  third  tier  lost  109;  thus  mak- 
ing 33  per  cent,  more  loss  in  the  first  than  in  the  second,  and  83  per  cent, 
more  loss  than  in  the  third.  In  1897,  the  first  tier  of  townships  bordering 
upon  the  river  lost  321  hogs  per  1,000,  the  second  tier  182,  and  the  third 
tier  145;  76  per  cent,  greater  loss  in  the  first  than  in  the  second,  and  121 
per  cent,  more  than  in  the  third. 

In  every  general  epidemic  of  the  disease  of  which  I have  record  in  this 
State  the  disease  has  spread  from  the  rivers  to  the  higher  land.  The  evi- 
dence furnished  by  the  large  number  of  townships  and  for  successive 
years  should  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  important  role  which  streams  and 
surface  water  play  in  the  spreading  of  this  disease.  If  the  larger  streams 
are  such  impOx*tant  factors  we  can  reason  that  the  smaller  streams  have 
a like  effect.  Dr^.  Salmon  and  Smith  made  the  following  statement  in 
their  investigations  of  the  disease.  It  is  pertinent  and  should  be  remem- 
bered by  all  swine  breeders:  “Perhaps  the  most  potent  agents  in  the  dis- 

tribution of  hog  cholera  are  streams.  They  may  become  infected  with  the 


142 


specific  germ  when  sick  animals  are  permitted  to  go  into  them,  or  when 
dead  animals  or  any  part  of  them  are  thrown  into  water.  They  may 
even  multiply  when  the  water  is  contaminated  with  fecal  discharges  or 
other  organic  matter.  Experiments  in  the  laboratory  have  demonstrated 
that  the  hog  cholera  bacilli  may  remain  alive  in  water  four  months.  Mak- 
ing all  due  allowance  for  external  infiuences  and  competition  with  the 
bacteria  in  natural  water,  we  are  forced  to  assume  that  they  may  live  at 
least  a month  in  streams.  This  would  be  long  enough  to  infect  every  herd 
along  its  course.” 

It  is  a common  practice  throughout  this  State  to  give  the  hogs  surface 
water  in  which  to  wallow  and  to  drink.  Small  streams  are  dammed, 
drinking  places  are  built  into  the  rivers,  a basin  is  scooped  out  to  receive 
the  water  from  a barnyard,  open  ditch,  tile  drain  or  spring.  All  of  these 
afford  the  best  conditions  for  introducing  the  germs  into  the  herd.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  go  along  a public  ditch  or  a stream  during  an  epidemic 
and  find  the  carcasses  of  hogs  in  every  stage  of  decomposition,  thus  acting 
as  the  bearer  of  infection  to  new  herds.  The  conditions  are  better  now 
than  ever  before,  but  there  are  unscrupulous  men  who  will  take  that 
means  of  disposing  of  their  dead,  and  some  one  else  must  suffer. 

Some  springs  afford  pure  water  but  many  have  only  a surface  origin 
and  are  no  better  than  a tile  drain.  The  worst  feature  connected  with 
the  use  of  a spring  as  a water  supply  is  the  fact  that  no  provision  is  made 
for  keeping  the  water  clean  and  pure.  The  w'ater  usually  collects  in  a pool 
and  receives  the  surface  drainage  from  all  the  land  around  and  serves  as 
a wallow.  Under  such  circumstances  it  becomes  little  better  than  a pond. 

In  1895,  the  station  made  an  inquiry  as  to  the  source  of  the  water 
supply  used  by  the  breeders  of  pure-bred  swine.  It  was  found  that  in 
nearly  all  instances  in  which  they  escaped  disease,  they  used  well  water, 
Hogs  receiving  well  water  do  become  affected,  but  when  we  consider 
the  numerous  ways  by  which  the  infection  can  be  carried,  we  are  not  at 
all  surprised.  A good  well,  however,  must  always  be  considered  as  fur- 
nishing the  maximum  protection. 

A study  was  also  made  of  the  relation  of  rainfall  to  the  disease.  No 

i. 

relationship  could  be  traced  to  the  total  rainfall  for  the  year  or  to  the 
total  rainfall  for  any  set  of  months.  In  general,  a season  with  sufficient 
rainfall  to  keep  a constant  supply  of ‘fresh  water  in  the  streams  or  one 


143 


ot  sufficient  drought  so  that  the  small  streams,  ponds,  etc.,  become  com- 
pletely dry,  are  productive  of  least  cholera.  A year  in  which  there  is 
much  stagnant  water  is  productive  of  the  greatest  death  rate. 

The  argument  is  advanced  that  the  greater  loss  occurs  along  the  rivers 
because  more  corn  is  raised,  more  hogs  are  fattened,  and  hence  they  are 
more  crowded.  In-order  to  determine  this  point  we  divided  the  counties 
in  the  State  into  groups  according  to  the  number  of  hogs  raised  per  square 
mile  and  determined  the  per  cent,  of  loss  for  these  groups.  This  is  pre- 
sented in  the  following  tables: 


Number  of  Hogs 
Per  Square  Mile 

1-  24 

25-  49 

50-  74 

75-  99 

100-124 

125-149 

150-174 

175-199 

200-224 


1883-1890. 


Number  of 

Per  cent. 

Counties. 

of  Loss 

....  1 

8.1 

....  7 

4.5 

. . . .12 

9.1 

....16 

8.3 

. . . .11 

....  7 

8.1 

....10 

8.8 

8 10. 


1895-1897. 


1-24 2 

25-  49 22 

50-  74 18 

75-  99 16 

■00-124 12 

125-149 8, 

150-174 7 

175-199 4. 

200-224 3 


7.7 

9.1 

11.1 

17.9 

19.2 

17.3 
21.6 
22.2 
26. 


During  a period  of  eight  years  there  is  comparatively  little  difference 
in  the  losses,  but  during  the  period  of  three  years  when  the  disease  raged 
with  unusual  violence  the  percentage  was  much  higher  in  the  counties 


144 


having  a large  number  of  hogs  per  square  mile.  It  is  not  possible  to  tell 
how  much  of  this  increase  in  loss  is  due  to  the  greater  number  of  hogs, 
as  it  so  happens  that  the  counties  having  a very  large  number  of  hogs 
per  square  mile  and  large  percentage  of  loss  also  have  one  or  more  rivers 
passing  througn  them.  From  a comparison  of  counties  about  equally 
situated  but  the  number  of  hogs  per  square  mile  very  different,  I am  of 
the  opinion  that  the  number  raised  is  not  a very  important  factor  in  de- 
termining the  per  cent,  of  loss. 

The  season  or  the  year  when  cholera  is  most  prevalent  is  always  in 
the  late  summer  and  fall.  It  occurs  at  all  times  of  the  year,  but  like  all 
the  intestinal  diseases,  as  dysentery,  typhoid  fever,  etc.,  in  people,  the 
conditions  are  more  favorable  for  germ  development  in  the  fall. 

Hog  cholera  is  often  contracted  as  a result  of  buying  hogs  from  stock- 
yards  for  feeding  purposes.  This  is  such  a common  experience  that  only 
the  strong-headed  or  uninitiated  will  be  likely  to  take  the  risk.  The 
large  stockyards  and  the  majority  of  shipping  cars  are  permanently  in- 
fected with  disease  and  no  matter  how  healthy  the  hogs  may  have  been 
when  they  started  from  home,  they  come  in  contact  with  infection  and 
should  never  be  withdrawn  from  the  yards  for  feeding  purposes.  We 
have  recorded  many  outbreaks  caused  in  this  way.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  the  shipping  of  diseased  hogs  over  the  railroad  may  be  the  means 
of  causing  new  outbreaks  of  disease.  I made  this  a particular  object  of 
research  in  1895  and  1896,  but  in  no  case  have  I been  able  to  find  more 
cholera  along  railroad  lines  than  at  a distance  of  a mile  or  two  upon 
either  side.  Under  the  present  method  of  having  the  right  of  way  fenced, 
I feel  certain  that  the  infection  from  this  source  is  over-rated. 

It  would  be  useless  to  try  to  go  into  detail  concerning  all  the  methods 
by  which  the  disease  is  distributed.  Any  means  by  which  the  germs  are 
carried  from  one  place  to  another  can  be  considered  an  accessory  cause. 
Alll  of  these  means  are  not  under  our  control,  but  many  are  and  we  will 
succeed  in  prevention  in  the  same  measure  as  we  eliminate  them. 

SYMPTOMS. 

The  diagnosis  of  the  different  swine  diseases  is  attended  with  great- 
er difficulties  than  the  diagnosing  of  diseases  in  horses  or  cattle.  Except 


145 


upon  very  careful  examination  the  general  symptoms  of  swine  diseases 
seem  to  be  very  much  the  same.  Cholera  assumes  several  different  forms 
and  therefore  can  not  be  recognized  by  any  specific  set  of  symptoms. 

The  symptoms  vary  greatly  with  the  virulence  of  the  outbreak.  It 
may  be  said  to  assume  an  acute  form  which  may  run  a course  in  from 
a few  hours  to  two  or  five  days,  a subacute  form  which  runs  its  course 
in  from  five  to  ten  days,  and  a chronic  form  which  may  last  a month 
and  more.  These  are  only  relative  terms  and  merely  used  fof  convenience 
in  describing  the  disease. , The  symptoms  as  here  described  are  for  the 
more  common  cases  that  live  from  five  to  ten  days.  About  the  first  symptom 
to  be  observed  is  a general  sluggish  condition,  the  eyes  more  or  less 
closed  and  dimmed,  the-  ears  drop  more  than  usual,  and  although  the 
hog  eats,  it  is  not  with  that  greediness  that  is  customary.  The  appetite 
becomes  depraved  and  he  will  eat  the  droppings  from  other  hogs  or 
chickens,  eat  clay  and  earthy  substances.  The  hog  lies  about  more  than 
usual,  hiding  in  fence  corners,  under  litter,  and  in  out  of  the  way  places. 
During  the  hottest  days  he  will  prefer  to  lie  in  the  scorching  sun  rather 
than  in  the  shade.  At  first  he  will  respond  to  calling  for  feed  but  later 
he  wil’  nor  get  up  unless  urged  to  do  so.  During  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease and  soinetimes  from  the  very  beginning  there  will  be  pronounced 
rheumatic  symptoms.  The  hog  will  be  lame  first  in  one  leg  and  then  in 
another.  The  back  will  be  arched.  Diarrhea  usually  makes  its  appearance 
with  the  onret  and  is  almost  always  present  at  some  time  during  the 
course.  The  discharges  at  first  are  thinner  than  normal,  but  they  rapidly 
become  tarry  and  have  a characteristic  offensive  odor.  Constipation  may 
occur  and  is  almost  sure  to  do  so  in  those  animals  that  eat  earth.  In  some 
of  the  animals  the  intestinal  contents  make  casts  that  perfectly  occlude 
the  passage  and  when  struck  with  a board  give  the  sensation  of  baked 
clay.  Vomiting  is  also  present.  There  is  rapid  emaciation.  The  fever 
lu  high  and  the  breathing  rapid  but  not  labored. 

In  the  very  acute  eases,  the  toxins  cause  such  rapid  poisoning  of  the 
system  that  death  is  so  sudden  that  the  symptoms  may  not  be  developed. 
A pig  that  will  be  eating  at  the  trough  at  one  hour  may  be  dead  the  next 

In  the  chronic  type  ospocially,  there  is  likely  to  be  swelling  of  the 
ears  and  cracking  of  the  tail.  Both  may  drop  off.  The  eruption  is  more 
pronounced  upon  the  okin.  Dicers  may  form  from  the  size  of  a grain 


146 


of  wheat  to  the  size  of  the  hand.  The  hair  is  lost.  . There  is  frequently 
hemorrhage  from  the  nose  and  sometimes  sore  mouth  and  feet.  There 
is  coughing  as  a result  of  lung  involvement. 

In  hog  cholera  the  great  fatality  is  among  the  pigs,  the  older  hogs 
often  making  a recovery  or  not  being  attacked. 

In  swine  plague  a cough  is  probably  the  first  symptom  observed.  It 
is  paroxysmal  at  first  but  is  deep  seated.  This  is  more  noticeable  when 
the  animal  first  gets  up  or  after  exercise.  Later  the  cough  is  more 
persistent.  The  breathing  is  short  and  rapid  with  little  movement  to  the 
ribs  and  a double  jerk  in  the  fianks,  like  a horse  with  heaves.  The 
breathing  becomes  more  labored,  the  throat  swells  and  there  is  nose  bleed. 
It  the  hands  are  pressed  over  the  ribs  there  will  be  evidence  of  pain,  often 
due  to  pleurisy.  The  animal  will  not  move  more  than  necessary,  the  ap- 
petite remains  better  tnan  in  cholera,  there  is  much  thirst  and  much  less 
tendency  to  diarrhea.  Constipation  is  more  frequently  present  than  in 
cholera.  The  eyes  are  more  inflamed  and  watery  and  there  is  less  ten- 
dency to  skin  eruption.  Swine  plague  is  particularly  liable  to  attack  and 
be  fatal  to  old  hogs.  Bfith  diseases  may  be  present  in  the  same  herd  and 
even  in  the  same  animal  at  one  time,  thus  complicating  the  symptoms. 
In  nearly  all  cases  where  ih(  re  is  doubt  and  a number  of  hogs  are  simi- 
larly affected  in  the  same  neighborhood,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  one  or 
both  of  these  diseases  are  present. 

Hog  cholera  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  other  diseases,  as  worms, 
diarrhea,  or  scours,  septicemia  or  blood  poisoning,  etc.  Swine  plague  is 
frequently  mistaken  for  pneumonia,  pleurisy  and  bronchitis. 

In  some  places  the  intestinal  worms  become  so  numerous  as  to  cause 
all  the  intestinal  symptoms  ascribed  to  cholera,  vomiting,  diarrhea,  de- 
praved appetite  and  emaciation.  The  onset  of  the  trouble  is  not  so  sud- 
den; there  is  not  the  same  temperature,  usually  no  lameness,  and  no  skin 
eruption.  The  worms  causing  the  trouble  may  be  the  large  intestinal 
worms,  the  size  of  a lead  pcncii  or  larger,  or  the  small  fellows  from  one- 
half  to  three  inches  in  length.  A post-mortem  will  show  the  presence  of 
the  parasites  in  great  numbers  and  the  intestines  will  be  more  or  less 
irritated.  The  presence  of  iho  parasites  causes  so  much  loss  that  some 
or  the  cholera  cures  are  nothing  but  vermifuge  powders.  The  lung  worm 
may  also  produce  symptom.s  that  will  be  mistaken  for  swine  plague. 


147 


Diarrhea,  or  scours,  may  also  be  mistaken  for  cholera  as  it  is  so  often 
induced  by  a change  of  feed  as  turning  upon  new  corn,  feeding  city  slops 
that  contains  soap  and  sour  feed.  The  discharges  are  usually  more  fluid 
and  of  lighter  color  than  in  cholera.  The  diseases  can  not  be  distinguished 
in  the  early  stages,  but  a change  to  a limited  dry  diet  will  usually  be  all 
that  is  necessary  to  bring  about  the  desired  result  in  the  diarrheal 
trouble. 

A fovm  of  septicemia,  or  blood  poisoning,  sometimes  attacks  a bunch 
of  pigs  and  being  contagious,  spreads  from  one  to  another.  The  mouth, 
nose,  lips,  tongue,  feet  or  other  parts  of  the  body  become  gangrenous 
While  the  disease  presents  some  of  the  symptoms  of  cholera,  the  localiza- 
tion of  the  trouble  is  sufficient  to  make  a diagnosis. 

Hogs  will  pile  up  in  bunches  when  not  properly  divided  and  protected 
during  the  cold  weather,  and  as  a result  catch  more  or  less  severe  colds, 
resulting  in  bronchitis,  pneumonia  and  pleurisy,  giving  rise  to  symptoms 
like  those  of  swine  plague.  The  same  troubles  may  also  appear  as  a 
result  of  turning  hogs  upon  a stubble  or  pasture  fleld  during  very  hot 
weather  and  then  permitting  them  to  have  access  to  cold  springs  or  brooks 
in  which  to  wallow.  These  same  troubles  sometimes  arise  from  the  in- 
halation of  dust.  A study  of  the  conditions  will  .usually  suffice  to  differ- 
entiate the  troubles. 


TREATMENT. 

The  treatment  naturally  divides  itself  into  medicinal,  hygenic  and 
preventive.  The  medicinal  is  the  least  important,  as  we  have  no  spe- 
cific for  the  disease.  Veterinarians  who  have  made  a careful  study  or 
the  action  of  drugs  and  of  the  character  of  the  disease  have  tried  every- 
thing that  would  seem  to  be  a rational  treatment,  but  have  failed. 
Pathologists  hav-^e  recognized  the  apparently  hopeless  condition  to  be 
treated  and  have  been  unable  to  suggest  a remedy.  Experimenters  have 
tried  everything  which  science  and  empiricism  has  claimed  would  cure, 
but  they  have  found  nothing  which  they  could  endorse.  Notwithstanding 

all  the  futile  efforts  that  have  been  made  by  careful  and  conscientious 

/ 

workers,  backed  by  large  sums  of  money  and  every  facility  for  investiga- 
tion, we  have  more  than  one  hundred  sure-cure  cholera  remedies  upon 


148 


the  market  in  this  State.  According  to  the  manufacturers  (and  the  claims 
are  all  alike),  the  prevention  and  cure  of  hog  cholera  is  a very  simple 
thing  ynd  depends  wholly  upon  whether  the  farmer  is  willing  to  buy  a 
few  packages  of  their  remedy  and  use  as  directed.  It  is  impossible  to 
make  a close  estimate  of  the  amount  paid  for  such  preparations,  but  :t 
is  safe  to  say  that  in  this  State  it  amounts  to  more  than  $100,000  annually. 

In  1897  and  1898  the  writer  devoted  considerable  time  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  merits  of  the  various  preparations  upon  the  market.  Many  ot 
these  preparations  are  the  product  of  misguided  men,  wholly  ignorant  of 
the  pathology  of  the  disease  and  equally  as  ignorant  of  the  action  of  the 
ingredients  in  their  concoctions.  From  a very  limited  trial  they  had 
drawn  conclusions  and  sincerely  believed  they  had  discovered  a sure  cure 
and  wci  e willing  to  part  with  it  for  a large  compensation. 

A much  larger  number  of  the  remedies  are  prepared  by  men  and  com- 
panie^'■.  who  know  the  value  of  a well-worded  advertisement  and  who  are 
in  the  business  for  revenue  only.  They  take  the  formula  published  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  alter  it  in  some  slight  particulars,  call  it  by 
another  name  and  increase  the  price  probably  ten  times.  Another  fa- 
vorite scheme  is  to  take  the  formula  of  some  of  the  patented  preparations 
and  sell  the  remedy  under  a new  name,  well  knowing  that  if  it  failed  un- 
der one  name  that  it  would  act  no  better  under  a new.  I was  informed 
that  Brown  County  clay  sold  for  seventy  cents  per  pound. 

A third  class  of  remedies  are  prepared  by  men  who  make  a study 
of  the  disease.  They  constitute  a very  small  minority. 

ri  cre  is  no  better  evidence  that  we  have  no  sure  remedy  than  the 
fact  that  we  have  so  many  upon  the  market.  In  these  experiments  one 
hundud  and  fifty-six  remedies  were  tried  and  nearly  4,200  pounds  of 
drugs.  All  the  formulae  given  in  the  patent  office  reports  were  filled. 
A large  number  of  formulae  were  obtained  from  the  owners  and  manu- 
facturers, a few  by  analysis  and  several  hundred  pounds  of  the  proprie- 
tary remedies  were  used. 

The  plan  was  to  test  each  remedy  upon  at  least  five  herds  in  as  many 
places  ,>rd  at  different  times  during  the  season,  in  order  to  work  over  all 
the  conditions.  Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be  said  that  none 
of  them  fulfilled  their  claims.  Some  were  positively  injurious.  Many  of 
them  seemingly  did  good  upon  some  herds,  and  if  a hurried  conclusion 


149 


had  been  reached,  it  would  have  been  favorable.  This  is  an  error  too 
often  made  ana  no  test  can  be  considered  satisfactory  that  is  not  used 
upon  a large  number  of  hogs  in  different  herds,  in  different  localities  and 
at  different  times  during  the  season.  The  good  effects  often  reported 
are  freguently  due  to  the  better  care  and  better  hygienic  conditions  in 
following  the  directions.  Some  manufacturers  accompany  their  goods 
with  carefully  compiled  directions  upon  care  and  management,  and  as 
they  cost  considerable,  it  insures  their  being  carried  out.  It  must  be 
confessed,  howiever,  that  directions  come  high  at  fifty  cents  per  pound. 

Very  few  remedies  find  a place  upon  the  market  for  more  than  five 
years.  The  great  majority  of  them  run  their  course  in  two  years,  and 
the  writer  is  cognizant  of  but  three  that  have  been  sold  for  a period  of 
more  thnn  ten  years.  This  is  the  test  of  their  efficiency.  In  every  in- 
stance in  which  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  take  infected  hogs  from 
the  stockyards,  treat  them  and  fatten  them  for  the  market,  the  result  has 
been  a failure. 

In  1897,  Mr.  John  Cowie,  of  Iowa,  tested  a number  of  the  more  widely 
advertised  remedies  and  the  results  were  unfavorable.  Dr.  Reynolds, 
State  Veterinarian  for  Minnesota,  after  examining  the  matter  carefully, 
issued  a circular  advising  the  farmers  not  to  purchase  the  remedies. 

In  mild  outbreaks  and  in  very  many  cases  much  good  can  be  accom- 
plished by  such  remedies  as  will  keep  the  bowels  clear  and  act  as  an 
alterative  and  tonic.  For  this  purpose  we  have  a prescription  generally 
known  as  the  government  formula,  and  is  as  follows: 

V^ood  charcoal,  1 pound. 

Sulphur,  2 pounds. 

Soaium  chloride  (salt),  2 pounds. 

Sodium  bicarbonate  (baking  soda,)  2 pounds. 

Sodium  hyposulphite,  2 pounds. 

Sodium  sulphate  (Glauber  salts),  1 pound. 

Antimony  sulphide,  1 pound. 

The  dose  is  a tablespoonful  for  each  200  pounds  once  or  twice  a day. 
It  is  best  given  in  slop.  This  costs  about  ten  cents  per  pound  and  is  the 
one  30  much  imitated  and  sold  under  different  names  at  from  twenty 
to  fifty  cents  per  pound. 

0 


150 


Our  best  results  in  the  treatment  of  mild  cases  were  obtained  by  using 
the  following: 

Chlorate  of  potash,  1 pound. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda,  1 pound. 

Nitrate  of  potash,  2 pounds. 

Th^‘  dose  is  the  same  as  in  the  former  prescription.  In  the  early 
stages  and  when  constipation  is  present,  five  grains  of  calomel  are  admin- 
tered  once  a day  to  each  200  pounds  of  weight,  or  oil  meal  is  added  to  the 
slop. 

Another  treatment  which  found  considerable  favor  was  a tablespoon- 
ful of  a saturated  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  a like  quantity  of 
tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  once  or  twice  a day  for  each  300  pounds. 

A half  gallon  of  kerosene  to  a barrel  of  slop  mixed  thoroughly  gave 
better  results  Lhan  three-fourths  of  the  remedies  tried. 

Quinine  and  salol  were  also  of  service. 

Carbolic  acid  and  like  preparations  are  disinfectants  and  not  cures. 

The  treatment  of  inoculating  worn-out  horses  with  cholera  germs, 
6;illing  the  horse  and  feeding  it  to  the  hogs  was  not  a success.  The  feed- 
ing of  the  carcasses  of  hogs  that  had  died  of  the  disease  and  then  buried 
is  to  be  condemned.  The  boiling  of  the  carcasses  of  cholera  hogs  and 
feeding  them  has  likewise  disappointed  those  who  have  tried  it.  A final 
methc-.l  of  prying  open  the  hog’s  mouth  and  cutting  off  the  papillae  inside 
of  the  :’aw  only  abstracts  blood. 

Recently  it  has  been  found  that  sulphate  of  copper  in  very  dilute 
solutions  is  effective  in  sterilizing  contaminated  water.  Acting  upon 
this  basis,  experiments  have  been  made  using  one  to  two  ounces  of  copper 
sulphate  to  the  barrel  of  water.  The  results  have  been  above  the  aver- 
age to  date.  The  time  has  been  too  short  to  promise  anything  definite. 

PREVENTION  BY  VACCINATION. 

Tlie  attempt ‘to  prevent  hog  cholera  by  vaccination  is  dependent  upon 
the  rwi  that  one  attack  confers  immunity  against  subsequent  attacks. 
Vaccination  has  been  used  against  smallpox  in  the  human  subject  with 
the  most  marked  success.  In  this  case  the  pox  germ  is  obtained  from  the 


151 


cow  and  when  vaccination  takes  place  it  induces  a very  mild  disease. 
Vaccination  is  also  used  against  anthrax  in  sheep  and  cattle  flere  the 
disease  germs  have  had  their  vitality  reduced  by  artificial  means  and 
only  a mild  attack  follows.  The  results  are  highly  satisfactory  and  sheep 
and  cattle  are  now  raised  where  it  was  impossible  to  do  so  before. 

The  attempts  to  vaccinate  against  cholera  have  not  been  successful, 
in  the  first  place,  we  know  of  no  animal  having  a similar  disease,  the 
germs  of  which  when  inoculated  into  the  hog  will  confer  immunity,  and 
no  method  of  attenuating  the  germs  so  that  they  can  be  inoculated  with 
safety  has  yet  been  discovered.  Some  years  ago  Billings  and  Detmers 
each  thought  they  had  discovered  successful  means  of  vaccination  and 
the  work  was  carried  on  on  a large  scale.  The  results  were  unsatis- 
factory and  had  to  be  given  up,  as  it  had  the  effect  at  times  of  starting 
the  d.^ease  where  it  did  not  previously  exist.  The  work  was  revived  at 
the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  but  without  great  success. 

THE  ANTI-HOGCHOLERA  SERUM. 

The  serum  treatment  of  hog  cholera  was  probably  first  demonstrated 
by  Dr.  Peters  in  1896,  and  the  same  work  undertaken  at  almost  the  same 
time  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  The  serum  treatment  is  based 
upon  the  same  principles  as  are  involved  in  the  anti-toxin  for  diphtheria. 

It  is  a well  established  fact  that  in  some  bacterial  diseases  a strong 
resistance  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  is  developed  by  the  formation  in  the 
blood  of  a substance  known  as  anti-toxin.  The  germs  form  a toxin  or 
poison  and  the  body  forms  the  anti-toxin  to  counteract  the  growth  of  the 
germs.  If  the  formation  of  the  anti-toxin  is  in  excess  the  patient  recovers, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  blood  from  such  a patient  can  be  drawn,  the 
anti-toxin  separated,  and  if  added  to  the  blood  of  a patient  that  is  exposed 
or  affected  it  will  prevent  the  disease  or  bring  about  a recovery.  In  order 
to  secure  anti-toxin  in  medicinal  quantities,  it  is  usual  to  inoculate  animals 
that  do  not  have  the  particular  disease  and  produce  a slight  attack,  and 
after  recovery,  reinoculate  and  repeat  until  the  animal  can  stand  an 
enormous  quantity  at  one  time.  A quantity  of  blood  is  drawn  and  the 
serum  separated  and  this  is  ready  for  use. 

The  government  has  experimented  upon  a large  scale  with  this  treat- 


152 


ment  and  in  the  main  the  reports  have  been  very  favorable,  A number 
of  private  firms  have  attempted  the  same  thing,  but  up  to  the  present 
they  have  not  been  very  successful.  This  treatment  does  not  promise 
nearly  so  much,  in  the  estimation  of  the  writer,  as  the  public  has  been 
led  to  suppose.  The  serum  can  not  be  produced  at  low  cost  and  its  admin- 
istration requires  the  service  of  a veterinarian,  two  conditions  which 
militate  against  its  general  usage. 

PREVENTION.- 

As  we  have  no  specific  for  the  disease  nor  any  line  of  medication  that 
is  fairiy  successful,  we  must  rely  upon  prevention.  This  can  not  be  done 
to  the  same  extent  as  in  many  other  diseases,  and  this  is  especially  true 
of  swine  plague.  To  enumerate  all  of  the  steps  would  necessitate  repe- 
tition of  points  already  made,  so  that  only  the  more  prominent  will  be 
considered. 

First,  the  water  supply  should  be  from  deep  tubular  wells.  Water 
from  a tubular  well  must  come  in  from  the  bottom,  which  means  that  it 
has  been  filtered  through  the  soil  and  the  possibilities  of  pathogenic  or- 
ganisms being  present  is  reduced  to  the  minimum.  Treat  all  surface 
water,  whether  pond,  creek,  spring  or  river,  as  unfit  for  man  or  beast. 
The  feeo  should  be  pure  and  wholesome.  Slops  that  have  stood  and 
fermented  are  not  better  suited  to  the  stomach  of  the  hog  than  that  of 
some  other  animal.  The  dishwater  contains  so  little  nutrition  that  it 
would  be  more  economical  to  throw  it  away  than  to  feed  it.  Corn  is  un- 
doubtedly our  cheapest  fattening  food,  but  should  not  be  given  alone 
to  sowc  and  pigs.  The  addition  of  a little  oil  meal  or  other  material 
rich  in  protein  will  be  most  advantageous.  Pasture  should  be  used  in 
season.  Hogs  are  fond  of  charcoal,  ashes  and  salt,  and  these  seem  to 
furnish  something  to  the  body  that  is  decidedly  beneficial.  The  cobs  from 
the  feed  fioor  should  be  raked  into  a shallow  pit  and  burned  to  a char  and 
salt  added  at  least  once  a week.  Nearly  all  prominent  breeders  follow  the 
practice  of  supplying  charcoal,  salt  and  ashes  in  some  form  and  many 
attribute  to  it  the  power  of  preventing  disease.  A feeding  floor  should 
be  provided.  The  bedding  for  hogs  should  be  like  that  for  other  stock — 
a littl  *-  at  a time  and  removed  often.  There  is  no  better  reason  for  com- 


153 


pelling  a fine  sow  to  lie  in  her  own  filth,  than  there  would  be  in  the  case 
of  a good  horse.  The  bedding  of  both  will  become  foul  and  should  be  re- 
moved. It  can  not  be  kept  pure  by  disinfectants.  Hogs  should  have  no 
bedding  during  the  warm  season,  only  a dry  place  in  which  to  sleep. 

In  case  of  an  outbreak  of  disease  upon  the  premises,  separate  the 
well  hogs  from  the  sick  and  confine  all  in  small  lots  upon  one  part  of  the 
farm.  Separate  the  well  hogs  from  the  sick,  as  the  contagion  is  spread 
by  the  droppings  and  excreta  and  the  well  hogs  would  be  subject  to  the 
contagion  if  kept  upon  the  ground  where  the  sick  had  been.  Formerly 
the  recommendation  was  made  to  give  the  hogs  the  benefit  of  a large 
pasture  and  keep  constantly  dividing  the  herd.  Experience  has  shown 
ihat  this  has  the  disadvantage  of  getting  the  germs  scattered  all  over 
the  farm,  prolonging  the  outbreak,  and  has  no  advantage  over  placing 
them  in  two  or  three  small  lots.  By  the  latter  method  the  business  of 
hog-raif  ing  can  again  be  started  as  soon  as  the  outbreak  is  over,  using 
some  other  part  of  the  farm.  Use  plenty  of  disinfectants  about  the  place. 
Air  slaked  lime,  whitewash,  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic  acid,  etc.,  are  all 
good.  If  possible  have  one  man  to  feed  the  diseased  and  another  to 
feed  the  well  hogs.  Take  advantage  of  all  the  sunlight  that  it  is  possible 
to  get,  as  that  is  the  cheapest  disinfector. 

No  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  guidance  as  to  the  time  when  pens,  etc., 
may  be  used  after  an  outbreak  of  disease.  We  have  observed  instances 
in  which  this  was  done  immediately  and  disease  did  not  follow,  and  in 
other  cases  weeks  and  months  have  elapsed  and  a fresh  outbreak  would 
be  started.  If  the  place  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  and  is  well 
lighted  a few  weeks  will  be  sufficient,  but  when  it  is  feasible  it  is  better 
not  to  attempt  it  again  during  the  same  season.  Experience  has  shown 
that  a wise  precaution  is  not  to  permit  the  hogs  to  graze  or  be  in  pens 
alongside  a public  highway.  Hogs  having  the  disease  and  driven  to 
market  will  leave  droppings  that  become  mixed  with  dust  and  blown 
upon  the  premises.  It  is  the  observation  of  the  writer  that  this  is  a pre- 
caution not  sufficiently  emphasized. 

Hogs  may  be  disposed  of  in  two  ways,  by  burial  and  burning.  If  by 
burial  it  should  be  well  done,  upon  a dry  place  at  least  three  feet  deep 
and  in  a woods  or  field  to  which  hogs  will  not  have  access  for  a long  time, 
ft  it  be  true  th^-u  the  disease  germs  live  for  a long  time  in  the  soil  then 


burial  only  favors  the  development  of  some  subsequent  and  unexplained 
outbreak.  Where  burial  is  practiced,  the  addition  of  a quantity  of  quick- 
lime will  be  effectual  in  destroying  the  germs. 

Burning  is  not  difficult  when  properly  done.  The  essential  point  is  to 
get  at  least  a foot  of  wood  under  the  carcass.  A very  much  smaller 
amount  of  wood  will  be  required  where  the  fire  is  under  rather  than  at 
the  side.  All  carcasses  should  be  disposed  of  at  once  and  it  is  far  more 
economical  to  kill  badly  infected  hogs  than  to  have  them  linger  around 
for  a week  or  two. 


STATE  CONTROL. 

The  argument  is  often  made  that  the  state  should  exercise  some  con- 
trol over  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague.  The  precedent  is  cited  that  the 
government  stamped  out  pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle  and  has  saved  mil- 
lions of  dollars  to  the  cattle  interests.  The  different  states  take  cogni- 
zance of  glanders  and  practically  have  that  malady  under  control.  South- 
ern cattle  fever  is  now  confined  to  restricted  areas,  and  sheep  are  being 
dipped  for  scab.  The  diseases  which  have  been  stamped  out  or  brought 
under  control  have  been  of  such  character  as  to  require  close  contact  to 
spread  them.  Hog  cholera  is  a disease  of  different  character  and  there- 
fore is  not  amenable  to  the  same  methods.  Typhoid  fever  in  people  some- 
times assumes  an  epidemic  character  in  cities,  but  by  condemning  wells 
and  compelling  the  use  of  wholesome  water  the  disease  can  be  stamped 
out.  Hog  cholera  is  a water-borne  disease  and  can  be  prevented  in  part 
by  securing  pure  water,  but  there  are  other  means  of  spreading  the  in- 
fection. We  have  little  to  guide  us  in  what  may  be  accomplished  by  state 
control.  England  has  tried  to  stamp  out  the  disease  by  preventing  the 
shipment  of  pigs  unless  inspected,  no  hogs  to  be  shipped  from  a sw'ine 
fever  district,  and  none  to  be  moved  within  sixty  days  from  the  time 
of  an  outbreak.  In  the  shipment  of  pigs  all  cars  must  be  disinfected  and 
it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  owner  to  report  every  case  of  the  disease  as 
soon  as  it  appears  and  the  animal  is  slaughtered. 

Prior  to  1896,  the  regulations  were  not  so  rigid  and  the  effect  of  the 
attempt  at  control  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 


155 


Year.  Outbreaks. 

1894  5,682  ... 

1895  6,305  ... 

1896  5,166  .. 

1897  2,155  ... 

1898  2,514  ... 

1899  2,243  ... 

1900  1,940 

1901  ^ 3,140 

1902  1,688 

1903  1,478 


Hogs  Slaughtered. 
, . . . 56,296 
....  69,931 
. ...  79,286 
....  40,764 
, 43,756 
....  30,386 


The  effect  has  been  to  greatly  reduce  the  number  of  outbreaks  and 
also  the  number  of  animals  slaughtered.  For  a time  the  reduction  in  the 
number  of  outbreaks  and  also  of  pigs  slaughtered  was  so  marked  that 
much  hope  was  entertained  that  it  might  be  possible  to  completely  control 
the  disease.  The  very  serious  restriction  to  trade  and  the  heavy  expense 
has  brought  many  protests  from  the  producers.  The  recent  report  of  the 
government  veterinarian  admits  disappoiiitment  in  not  being  able  to 
stamp  out  the  trouble. 

In  1897  the  government  undertook  an  experiment  in  Page  County, 
Iowa,  to  determine  what  might  be  accomplished  by  county  police  meas- 
ures. The  plan  was  to  canvass  a part  of  the  county  and  determine  the 
number  of  pigs  raised  the  year  before,  the  number  that  died  and  the 
numb*"'’’  now  on  hand.  Upon  receipt  of  notice  of  an  outbreak  the  veteri- 
narian called  and  killed  all  the  sick  and  paid  the  owner  at  market  rates. 
Disinfection  and  general  cleaning  of  the  premises  followed.  It  is  be- 
lieved by  some  that  the  saving  more  th.in  paid  the  expenses. 

Several  of  the  States  have  laws  upon  hog  cholera,  but  they  usually 
define  <he  manner  in  which  the  carcass  shall  be  disposed  of.  Minnesota 
probably  undertakes  more  than  any  other  State  and  there  the  matter 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Board  of  Health.  Canada  demands  a certi- 
ficate of  a clean  bill  of  health  from  the  State  Veterinarian  before  they  can 
be  shipped  in.  The  tendency  is  toward  making  transportation  companies 
disinfect  cars,  yards,  etc. 

In  our  own  state,  the  law  requires  burning  or  burial  of  the  carcass; 


156 


it  requires  a statement  of  health  to  exhibit  at  the  fairs  and  the  disinfec- 
tion of  pens,  etc.,  at  fairs.  It  is  an  imperfect  law  but  has  been  the  means 
of  saving  many  thousands  of  dollars. 

DISEASE  SIMILAR  TO  HOG  CHOLERA. 

Recently  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  described  a disease  that 
can  not  be  distinguished  from  hog  cholera  but  which  is  not  due  to  the 
hog  cholera  germ.  ' 

Cause. — The  germ  causing  the  disease  has  not  been  described.  The 
time  between  exposure  and  development  of  disease  is  from  seven  to  twelve 
days.  The  hog  looses  appetite,  is  listless  and  by  the  second  day  appears 
sick.  The  flanks  become  hollow  and  the  appearance  gaunt  and  the  gait 
becomes  staggering.  Dirrhoea  may  or  may  not  develop.  The  symptoms 
gradually  become  worse  and  death  occurs  about  the  seventh  day. 

Appearance. — The  skin  is  red  or  blotched  and  these  are  made  up  of 
numerous  small  spots.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  enlarged  and  red.  The 
stomach  and  small  intestines  appears  normal  or  to  have  small  red  spots. 
The  large  intestines  are  covered  with  reddish  spots  and  these  run  together 
near  the  rectum  to  make  the  appearance  of  a solid  reddened  area.  The 
kidneys  and  lungs  show  the  same  reddened  areas.  The  liver  is  mottled 
with  gray.  The  spleen  is  enlarged. 

Treatment. — None  is  recommended  as  too  little  is  known  concerning 
the  diseaese. 


ULCERATIVE  STOxMATITIS. 

Infectious  Sore  Mouth  in  Pigs. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  common  in  pigs  from  a few  days  to  several 
weeks  of  age  and  is  infectious  in  character.  No  specific  germ,  however, 
has  been  found.  Dusty,  dirty  or  muddy  quarters  are  among  the  predis- 
posing causes.  Under  suck  conditions  the  sow’s  udder  is  exposed  to  dust 
and  dirt  and  acts  as  a carrier  of  disease  producing  germs.  The  disease 
may  be . spread  by  diseased  pigs  infecting  the  teats  of  the  mothers  of 
healthy  litters. 

Symptoms. — The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lips  and  cheeks  is 


157 


swollen  and  inflamed.  This  is  frequently  quite  marked,  the  snout  and 
lips  becoming  so  badly  swollen  that  the  pig  can  hardly  breathe.  In  the 
beginning  the  pig  is  careless  of  the  teat  and  as  the  ulceration  progresses, 
it  becomes  unable  to  suckle.  The  ulcers  form  quite  readily  on  the  lips, 
snout  and  tongue,  appearing  as  light  colored  spots  elevated  above  the 
healthy  tissue.  These  soon  break  down  and  slough  off,  leaving  deep 
cavernous  excavations  that  may  involve  several  of  the  teeth,  or  a large 
portion  of  the  lips  or  snout.  'In  extreme  cases  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw 
or  the  whole  snout  may  drop  off.  The  ulcers  on  the  face  and  body  appear 
as  brown  scabs  that  soon  open  into  deep  pits  or  cracks.  The  pig  acts 
very  dull,  is  feverish  and  being  unable  to  suckle,  becomes  greatly  emaciat- 
ed and  soon  starves  to  death.  In  advanced  cases  treatment  does  but  little 
good.  If  recovery  does  occur,  the  pig  is  usually  stunted,  or  deformed 
about  the  face  or  ITps.  The  disease  may  end  fatally  in  from  three  to  ten 
days. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  is  very  important.  The  dis- 
eased pigs  should  be  isolated  from  the  healthy  ones,  the  pens  kept  clean 
and  disinfectants  used  freely.  The  diseased  pigs  should  be  dipped  head 
foremost  into  a two  per  cent,  watery  solution  of  any  of  the  coal  tar  dis- 
infectants, or  the  mouth  dipped  into  a solution  of  permanganate  of  potas- 
sium, (one  ounce  to  the  gallon  of  water).  This  must  be  repeated  once  a 
day  for  several  days.  It  is  also  best  to  wash  the  udder  of  the  mother  with 
a similar  solution.  When  the  ulceration  is  well  advanced,  the  dead  tis- 
sue should  be  removed  and  lunar  caustic  rubbed  on  the  parts.  It  is  usu- 
ally economy  to  destroy  the  badly  diseased  pigs. 

TUBERCULOSIS  OF  HOGS. 

The  abattoir  statistics  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
show  tliis  to  be  a fairly  common  disease  of  swine.  Tuberculosis  has  been 
increasing  among  hogs  during  recent  years,  but  is  not  nearly  as  prevalent 
here  as  it  is  in  European  countries.  There  the  disease  is  also  more  prev- 
alent among  cattle,  and  statistics  show  that  the  percentage  of  tubercular 
hogs  increase  as  the  affection  becomes  more  common  in  cattle.  The 
disease  is  more  often  seen  in  young  than  in  old  hogs,  and  is  generally 
acute  and  generalized. 


158 


Causes. — The  specific  cause  of  tuberculosis  is  the  bacillus  tuberculosis, 
which  was  discovered  by  Koch  in  1882,  and  can  be  found  in  the  nodules 
and  tubercules  in  the  tissues  of  diseased  hogs.  These  bacteria  usually  oc- 
cur in  the  form  of  slender  rods  averaging  from  2^  to  5^,  in  length  and 
nare  rounded  ends.  They  may  be  seen  singly,  in  pairs,  and  in  small  bun- 
dles, and  do  not  form  spores,  but  vacuoles.  There  is  probably  no  disease 
producing  germ  which  undergoes  greater  modifications  under  various 
conditions  for  environment  than  this  one.  Pigs  generally  contract 
the  disease  by  eating  infected  food;  skim  milk,  butter-milk  and  slops  from 
the  dairy.  Young  pigs  may  become  diseased  from  sucking  a tuberculous 
mother.  The  eating  of  tubercular  carcasses  may  also  cause  it.  Infection 
may  take  place  through  the  inspired  air,  and  when  tubercular  hogs  are 
introduced  into  a herd,  all  the  hogs  in  the  pen  may  contract  the  disease. 

Predisposing  conditions  are  very  important  factors,  and  such  con- 
ditions as  act  unfavorably  on  the  constitutions  of  the  pig,  will,  if  the 
germs  are  present,  favor  the  development  of  the  disease.  Close  pens, 
filth,  unnatural  bringing  up,  early  forcing,  etc.,  all  favor  its  development. 
Improved  breeds  of  swine  are  said  to  be  more  predisposed  to  the  disease 
than  the  common  breeds.  Infection  has  been  known  to  occur  by  way  of 
wounds,  specially  castration. 

Symptoms. — These  will  vary  according  to  the  organ  affected.  In  pigs 
the  disease  is  often  acute  and  generalized.  Generally  the  symptoms  are 
not  well  manifested,  or  the  infection  may  be  slight  and  the  disease  is  not 
recognized  by  the  owner  unless  a post  mortem  examination  is  made  on 
some  of  the  dead  animals.  . In  young  pigs  that  have  become  infected  by 
sucking  a diseased  mother,  sympotms  of  intestinal  tuberculosis  may  be 
manifesied.  The  pig  becomes  runted,  “pot-bellied”  and  emaciated.  The 
visible  mucous  membranes  are  pale  and  the  skin  presents  an  unthrifty  ap- 
pearance, and  may  become  covered  with  crusts.  Digestive  disorders  oc- 
cur, such  as  diarrhoea,  bloating  and  vomiting.  Manipulating  the  abdomen 
may  cause  the  animal  pain  and  sometimes  a hard  knotty  mass,  represent- 
ing a bunch  of  tubercles,  is  felt.  The  pig  is  feverish  at  times. 

If  the  lungs  are  involved  there  is  a cough.  This  becomes  more  an- 
noying as  the  disease  progresses,  sometimes  the  pig  almost  chokes.  The 
breathing  is  quickened  and  labored.  Frequently  the  superficial  lymph 
glands  in  the  region  of  the  pharynx  are  affected. 


159 


In  tuberculosis  of  the  brain,  nervous  disturbances  are  noted,  such  ss 
turning  round  and  round,  convulsions,  spasms  of  muscles  and  paralysis. 
Only  p.'5rt  of  the  body  or  certain  groups  of  muscles  are  involved.  The 
head  may  be  held  obliquely,  the  snout  drawn  to  one  side  and  the  ears 
droop. 

The  course  of  generalized  tuberculosis  is  short  in  young  pigs,  but 
may  last  for  months  in  older  ones.  When  localized,  it  is  recognized  only 
after  the  animal  is  slaughtered. 

Lesions. — The  changes  in  the  tissues  following  the  invasion  of  the 
baccillus  tuberculosis  are  the  formation  of  nodules  or  tubercules,  gray 
or  yellowish  wnite  in  color,  or  translucent  in  character.  In  some  cases 
those  nodules  are  distinct  and  easily  recognized,  but  in  advanced  cases 
they  often  come  together  and  form  a mass  of  tubercular  tissue. 

In  Ihe  beginning  the  tubercle  consists  of  a few  cells  surrounding  the 
invading  germs.  These  are  soon  enclosed  in  a zone  of  epitheloid  and  giant 
cells,  which  in  turn  become  surrounded  by  a layer  of  lymphoid  cells.  The 
central  portion  of  the  tubercle  soon  dies  and  breaks  down,  and  as  the 
nodule  enlarges,  the  necrotic  portion  gradually  increases.  When  cut, 
the  nodules  or  masses  of  tissue  are  usually  made  up  largely  of  yellow 
caseous  material.  Sometimes  it  is  indurated  and  almost  as  hard  as  car- 
tilage. Calcareous  degeneration  of  nodules  is  not  often  seen  in  hogs. 

As  Ihe  disease  is  nearly  always  contracted  by  the  ingestion  of  infected 
food,  the  digestive  apparatus  and  lymphatic  glands  are  usually  involved. 
Localized  lesions  in  the  lymphatic  glands  (pharyngeal  and  submaxillary) 
are  very  common.  They  become  enlarged,  knotty  and  hard.  When  cut 
open,  they  are  made  up  mostly  of  old  fibrous  tissue  with  yellow  caseous 
centers  scattered  through  it.  Ulcers  and  milliary  modules  may  be  seen  in 
the  intestines;  yellow  milliary  granules  may  be  scattered  throughout  the 
liver  tissue,  or  tough  nodules,  yellowish  white  in  color  and  varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a pea  to  a hazel  nut,  may  be  seen;  the  peritoneum  is  some- 
times the  seat  of  fine  granulations;  and  lesions  the  same  as  exist  in  the 
liver  may  be  seen  in  other  internal  organs  (spleen,  lungs,  etc.).  When 
the  disease  is  generalized,  the  muscles  are  sometimes  affected. 

Treatment. — We  must  take  all  precautions  possible  against  infecting 
the  herd  by  avoiding  the  feeding  of  infected  food,  and  by  keeping  the  hog 
houses  and  pens  in  the  best  hygenic  condition  possible.  Hogs  should  not 


160 


be  fed  skim  milk  and  slops  from  a dairy  known  to  have  tuberculosis,  and 
it  is  a very  bad  practice  to  feed  hogs  the  carcasses  of  other  animals.  When 
a hog  has  tuberculosis,  it  should  be  destroyed  and  the  body  disposed  of 
in  a suitable  manner. 

INFECTIOUS  CATARRHAL  PNEUMONIA  OF  THE  PIG. 

Causes. — There  is  a form  of  catarrhal  pneumonia  of  pigs  that  is  with- 
out doubt  of  infectious  character.  The  infectious  nature  is  established 
from  the  clinical  history  rather  than  from  the  finding  of  a specific  organ- 
ism. It  affects  pigs  under  four  months  of  age  principally,  and  is  not  at- 
tended with  a very  high  death  rate  in  those  over  two  months  of  age. 

When  the  disease  is  introduced  into  a piggery,  it  is  almost  certain 
to  attack  all  susceptible  animals.  The  period  of  incubation,  that  is  the 
time  elapsing  from  the  period  of  exposure  to  that  of  the  development 
of  the  illness  is  from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  The  young  pigs  become  affected 
first,  while  a large  percentage  of  those  over  four  months  will  escape. 

Symptoms. — The  first  and  most  prominent  symptom  is  that  of  cough- 
ing and  this  persists  throughout  the  entire  course  of  the  affection.  There 
is  also  more  or  less  difficulty  in  breathing.  The  cough  at  first  is  weak  but 
soon  becomes  loud  and  is  attended  with  considerable  effort.  It  comes  on 
in  paroxysms  and  then  there  is  a longer  or  shorter  interval  of  quietude. 
The  coughing  spells  are  almost  certain  to  occur  when  the  pigs  first  stir 
'about  and  when  they  take  their  meals.  If  the  quarters  are  clean  and 
the  weather  pleasant,  the  coughing  is  about  the  only  symptom  observable. 
The  appetite  remains  good  and  the  fever  is  not  high.  If  the  weather  be- 
comes cold,  wet  or  stormy,  the  paroxysms  of  coughing  come  closer  to- 
gether, sometimes  amounting  to  almost  continuous  coughing.  There  will 
be  marked  difficulty  in  breathing,  loss  of  appetite  and  fever.  The  other 
symptoms  of  illness  are  rough  coat,  stiffness,  and  weakness.  Under  such 
conditions  there  will  be  a considerable  loss  of  the  weaker  pigs  in  the  litter 
and  especially  of  those  under  eight  weeks  of  age. 

The  disease  may  be  confused  with  swine  plague  or  hog  cholera.  It 
can  be  differentiated  from  the  plague  from  the  fact  that  the  latter  dis- 
ease attacks  older  hogs  and  the  death  rate  is  highest  in  old  hogs.  It  can 
be  distinguished  from  cholera  by  the  fact’  that  there  is  little  bowel  dis- 
tiirbance  and  much  lower  death  rate. 


161 


Post  mortem. — A post  mortem  examination  reveals  clearly  defined  red 
patches  spread  over  the  lungs.  They  are  most  numerous  along  the  edges, 
particularly  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  anterior  lobes.  On  section  they 
show  a uniform  red  color  or  dirty,  rusty  grey.  They  are  more  solid  than 
normal  tissues.  There  will  be  more  or  less  frothy  mucous  in  the  dis- 
eased areas  and  the  bronchi  are  injected  with  blood.  The  lung  tissue 
is  firm  and  dry.  The  lung  pleura  over  the  affected  area  is  diseased  but 
that  opposite  on  the  costal  pleura  is  seldom  involved.  The  heart  and  per- 
icardium remain  normal  unless  the  lung  is  affected  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  The  bronchial  glands  show  enlargement.  The  abdominal  viscera 
remain  normal. 

Treatment. — As  far  as  possible,  the  treatment  should  be  preventive. 
Pigs  that  are  coughing  should  not  be  turned  into  lots  with  pigs  that  ap- 
pear healthy.  Should  the  disease  break  out  in  a litter,  the  whole  litter 
should  be  removed  from  the  piggery,  the  bedding  burned  and  the  pen 
white-washed.  The  pigs  should  not  be  allowed  on  the  range  used  by 
other  pigs. 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  itself  consist  in  securing  dry,  clean 
quarters,  as  little  exposure  as  possible,  rich  but  not  bulky  food,  and  trust 
that  age  will  help  give  resistance.  The  administration  of  creolin  or  coal  tar 
creosote  preparations  at  the  rate  of  a teaspoonful  to  the  hundred  pounds 
of  weight  has  a good  effect.  It  is  best  given  mixed  with  the  milk. 

' ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

Causes. — Actinomycosis  is  an  infectious  disease  commonly  seen  in  cat- 
tle, but  may  occur  in  hogs.  The  specific  cause  is  a fungus,  Cladothrix 
actinomyces  or  ray  fungus.  Its  natural  habitat  is  on  plants  (barley, 
wheat,  etc.),  and  it  has  been  found  on  the  awns  or  beards  of  these  grains 
imbedded  in  the  tongue  of  hogs.  The  fungus  gains  entrance  to  the  body 
through  a wound  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  or  in  some  other 
part  and  may  follow  castration.  Inhalation  of  the  fungus  will  cause  the 
disease. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — These  occur  as  a result  of  the  fungus  multi- 
plying in  the  tissues  and  causing  them  to  break  down.  Tumors  form  on 
the  jaw  or  in  any  part  of  the  body  as  a result  of  the  infection.  Frequent- 


ly  ihe  lungs  are  affected.  When  the  disease  is  generalized,  the  pig  pre- 
sents an  unthrifty  appearance.  As  in  tuberculosis,  the  disease  may  not 
be  recognized  until  the  pig  is  slaughtered. 

The  fungus  appears  in  the  affected  tissues  or  in  the  pus  from  an  ab- 
scess, as  very  small  yellow  granules  that  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 
These  granules  when  placed  under  the  microscope  are  found  to  be  made  up 
of  rosettes,  each  one  composed  of  a number  of  club  shaped  bodies  radiat- 
ing from  a central  mass  which  is  composed  of  the  mycelial  part  of  the 
fungus,  a fine  thread  like  structure.  The  clubs  vary  in  size,  but  are 
usually  from  to  10^  long. 

Treatment. — The  most  practical  method  of  handling  actinomycosis  in 
pigs  is  to  send  them  to  the  abattoir.  In  most  cases  the  lesions  are  local- 
ized and  the  part  is  tanked.  If  generalized,the  animal  should  be  con- 
demned. If  we  desire  to  treat  the  pig,  twenty  grains  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium can  be  given  in  the  feed  daily  for  at  least  two  weeks,  or  until  symp- 
toms of  iodism  are  produced.  The  drug  must  be  then  discontinued,  and  it 
the  tumor  does  not  become  smaller  in  a few  weeks,  the  treatment  should 
be  repeated. 


ANTHRAX. 

Some  literature  on  diseases  of  the  hog  regard  hog  cholera  and  swine 
plague  as  forms  of  anthrax.  Formerly  this  error  was  not  well  understood 
by  swine  breeders,  and  undue  prominence  was  given  to  a disease  that  is 
rarely  seen  in  hogs  outside  of  permanently  infected  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. We  have  never  seen  a case  in  this  State. 

Causes. — Anthrax  is  caused  by  an  organism,  Bari  I /ns  an /h  rads,  and  is 
found  in  the  diseased  tissue  from  animals  affected  with  the  disease.  If 
the  tissues  of  an  animal  that  has  died  of  this  affection  are  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  germ  will  form  spores  which  are  very  resisting  to  destructive 
agents.  When  once  these  spores  are  introduced  into  a locality,  they  tend 
to  remain  there  for  years,  and  whenever  the  conditions  are  favorable,  will 
cause  an  outbreak  of  anthrax.  These  spores  are  frequently  carried  on  the 
hides,  wool,  hoofs,  horns,  etc.,  removed  from  cattle  having  anthrax,  and 
outbreaks  may  occur  as  a result  of  the  refuse  from  tanneries  infecting 


163 


pastures  on  which  sheep  and  cattle  graze.  Hogs  are  not  very  susceptible 
to  anthrax,  and  the  common  mode  of  infection  is  by  feeding  on  the  car- 
cass of  some  animal  that  has  died  from  the  disease.  Cases  have  been  re- 
ported, however,  where  the  disease  was  due  to  inoculation  with  the  germ. 

Symptoms. — The  pharyngeal  and  intestinal  forms  of  anthrax  are  the 
most  common  in  the  pig.  The  animal  is  feverish,  the  breathing  labored 
and  there  is  difficult/  in  swallowing  food.  The  pig  is  very  weak  and  dis- 
posed i,c  lie  down  most  of  the  time.  A swelling  may  appear  in  the  in- 
termaxillary space  and  spread  along  the  course  of  the  treachea  and  the 
neck  i&  usually  stiff  and  saliva  dribbles  from  the  mouth.  The  skin  is 
sometimes  stained  with  blood,  the  mucous  membranes  cyanosed  or  duskv 
brown.  Ulcers  may  form  on  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  throat, 
tongue  and  palate.  Carbuncles  sometimes  form  on  the  skin,  especially  on 
the  bade.  Death  occurs  from  suffocation. 

Lesions. — The  blood  is  tar-like  in  appearance,  and  hemorrhages  vary- 
ing in  amount  from  small  petechial  spots  to  a permeation  of  the  organ 
or  tissue  are  seen.  Submucous,  subserous,  and  subcutaneous  gelatinous 
and  serous  infiltrations  occur.  At  the  seat  of  the  inoculation  the  tissue 
may  be  necrotic.  The  spleen  is  enlarged  and  there  is  a parenchymatous 
inflammation  of  the  liver  and  kidneys.  In  the  very  acute  cases  these 
changes  are  slight.  The  longer  the  course  of  the  disease,  the  greater  are 
the  changes  in  the  tissues.  The  bacillus  anthracis  is  present  in  the  dis- 
eased tissue  and  in  order  to  confirm  a diagnosis,  we  should  prove  its 
presence. 

Treatment. — Hogs  should  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on  the  carcass  of  an 
animal  that  has  died  of  anthrax.  Preventive  precautions  are  all  that  is 
necessary  and  no  serious  losses  will  occur  if  the  dead  animals  are  dis- 
posed of  in  the  proper  manner. 


RABIES.  HYDROPHOBIA. 

Madness. 

Rabies  is  one  of  the  oldest  known  infectious  diseases.  Hogs  do  not 
puffer  as  extensively  from  it  as  do  dogs,  cattle  and  horses,  but  wherever 
an  extensive  outbreak  of  rabies  occurs,  hogs  are  usually  reported  as  dying 
from  the  disease. 

Causes.— The  specific  cause  of  rabies  is  not  known,  but  its  being  due  to 


164 


a specific  germ  cannot  be  disputed.  Rabies  is  a disease  produced  by  in- 
oculation, and  in  most  cases  is  due  to  the  bite  of  a rabid  dog.  The  saliva 
01  all  animals  infected  with  the  disease  contains  the  virus  of  rabies,  but 
carnivorus  animals  are  the  only  ones  that  have  a very  good  opportunity 
to  bite  other  animals  when  affected.  However,  the  saliva  from  any  rabid 
animal,  if  rubbed  into  a wound  or  break  in  the  skin  may  produce  rabies. 
Hogs  sometimes  show  a disposition  to  bite  and  may  infect  other  animals. 
The  average  period  of  incubation  is  from  two  to  three  weeks. 

Symptoms. — Rabies  in  hogs  is  characterized  by  very  much  the  same 
train  of  symptoms  as  occurs  in  other  animals.  The  hog  is  very  restless 
and  excitable,  and  if  lying  down  or  hidden  in  the  litter  may  jump  up 
suddenly,  squeal  and  run  about  as  if  pursued.  They  will  back  up  as 
closely  as  possible  in  the  corner  of  the  pen.  The  squealing  has  a peculiar 
crying  sound.  They  are  very  nervous  and  easily  startled  and  will  break 
for  a person  or  other  stock.  The  eyes  are  at  times  fixed  or  may  roll  abour:, 
and  there  is  an  abundant  secretion  of  saliva.  Frequently  they  will  gnaw 
the  boards  of  the  pen  and  make  desperate  efforts  to  get  out.  They  will 
bite  other  animals  and  swallow  indigestible  substances.  Swallowing  is 
difficult  on  account  of  the  early  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  degluition. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  is  short.  Paralysis  occurs  early  and  the 
bog  lies  or  hides  in  the  litter  most  of  the  time  and  pays  no  attention  to 
its  surroundings.  It  becomes  weak  or  emaciated  and  dies  in  a few  days. 

Lesions. — The  changes  in  the  tissues  are  neither  constant  nor  specific. 
The  most  constant  lesions  are  microscopic  in  character  and  are  found 
ii:  the  brain.  A congested  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
pharynx,  larynx  and  stomach,  enlargement  of  the  spleen  and  hyperemia 
(congested  condition)  of  the  brain  are  sometimes  seen.  Frequently  the 
stomach  contains  foreign  matter,  such  as  stones,  straw,  pieces  of  wood,  etc. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  hogs  in  any  way  is  not  practical.  As 
soon  as  a hog  develops  rabies,  it  should  be  destroyed  or  isolated  in  order  to 
prevent  its  spreading  the  disease. 


TETANUS. 

Lockjaii ' 

Causes. — Tetanus  is  caused  by  a specific  germ.  Bacillus  tetani.  This 
organism  exists  in  most  soils  but  is  more  common  in  some  localities  than 


165 


in  others.  In  warm  climates  it  is  more  abundant  than  in  cold,  and  dirt 
rich  in  organic  matter  seems  to  be  the  favorite  place  for  it. 

It  enters  the  body  by  way  of  a wound,  sometimes  so  slight  as  to  es- 
cape observation.  It  may  follow  as  a result  of  castration,  and  any  deep 
or  punctured  wound  that  is  not  open  to  the  air  is  a suitable  place  for  its 
development.  Tetanus  germs  differ  from  some  of  the  other  forms  in  that 
they  do  not  enter  the  circulation  and  become  distributed  to  different  parts 
of  the  body,  but  remain  at  the  point  of  infection.  There  they  manufacture 
poisons  (toxines  and  ptomains)  that  are  taken  up  by  the  circulation  and 
have  an  action  on  the  nervous  system  similar  to  strychnine. 

Symptoms. — The  acute  form  of  the  disease  is  usually  seen  in  hogs. 
1'he  spasms  begin  with  the  muscles  of  the  jaws  and  face,  and  spread  rap- 
idly to  other  parts  of  the  body,  involving  especially  the  back  and  limbs. 
Shortly,  the  hog  becomes  unable  to  stand,  falls  on  its  side  and  can  not 
get  up.  It  remains  in  this  position  with  the  limbs  extended  and  rigid. 
The  respirations  are  labored;  frothing  at  the  mouth  is  noticed  and  con- 
vulsions may  occur.  The  protrusion  of  the  third  eyelid  is  characteristic 
of  this  disease.  It  is  very  fatal  in  pigs. 

Treatment. — This  is  limited  to  preventive  treatment,  and  consists  in 
taking  all  the  necessary  precautions  ag^nst  infection  at  the  time  of  cas- 
tration f,nd  spaying.  Medicinal  treatment  is  of  little  use.  The  hog  should 
be  placed  in  a pen  by  itself  and  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  If  it  will  eat, 
a sloppy  diet  should  be  offered.  The  bowels  must  be  kept  open  by  injec- 
tions and  cathartics. 

SIMPLE  PYAEMIA  AND  SEPTICAEMIA. 

Blood  Poisoning. 

There  are  two  forms  of  blood  poisoning.  In  the  first  the  germs 
are  picked  up  by  the  blood  stream  while  passing  a wound  and  distributed 
throughout  the  body.  The  result  is  to  cause  abscesses  or  boils  in 
various  places,  on  the  surface,  and  in  the  organs,  as  the  lungs,  liver,  kid- 
neys. etc.  The  distribution  may  be  local  instead  of  general  and  we  have  the 
infection  following  up  a leg  or  spread  out  in  the  body.  Its  characteristic 
is  the  extension  of  pus.  This  is  known  as  pyaemia. 

In  the  second  form  there  are  pus  germs  present  at  the  wound  or 
point  of  infection  but  instead  of  these  being  carried  away  by  the  blood 


166 


they  remain,  and  as  they  grow,  produce  a poison  and  this  is  absorbed  and 
carried  about.  This  may  produce  profound  general  shock  to  the  system 
or  inflammation  of  certain  organs.  Both  conditions  may  be  present  at 
the  same  time. 

Causes. — These  are  the  pus  producing  microbes,  especially  staphylococ- 
cus pyogenes  aureus  or  albus  and  streptococcus  pyogenes,  that  enter  the 
tissues  through  bruises  or  abrasions  permitting  the  germs  to  become 
lodged  beneath  the  skin,  or  through  extensive  wounds.  Sometimes  they 
remain  at  the  point  of  infection,  but  may  be  transferred  from  here  by  the 
blood  stream  to  distant  points,  forming  suppurating  centers  or  infect  the 
tissues  generally  and  become  widely  distributed.  This  condition  is  not 
rare  as  a result  of  putrifactive  changes  in  the  uterus  following  an  in- 
flammation of  the  organ,  or  as  a result  of  retention  of  the  foetus. 

Symptoms. — Unless  the  symptoms  follow  an  extensive  infection  re- 
sulting from  a dififlcult  birth,  an  operation  or  a large  wound,  the  owner 
does  not  connect  them  with  a disease  of  this  nature.  At  the  point  of  in- 
fection, an  abscess  may  form  or  the  part  become  greatly  swollen  and 
oedematous.  The  body  temperature  is  elevated  and  in  serious  cases  the 
appetite  becomes  impaired.  Muscular  tremors  may  be  noticed,  and  the 
hog  becomes  dull  and  stupid.  is  generally  seen  hiding  in  the  weeds  or 
litter  or  in  some  cool,  quiet  place.  Sometimes  the  animal  has  a diarrhoea. 
In  serious  cases,  it  becomes  'greatly  emaciated  and  death  takes  place  in 
a few  days.  Recovery  frequently  occurs,  and  in  time  the  hog  begins 
to  thrive. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  mostly  preventive,  and  consists  in 
proper  care  being  given  most  wounds,  especially  if  extensive,  and  in  us- 
ing antiseptic  precautions  in  all  operations  on  the  pig.  Abscesses  should 
be  opened  promptly  and  at  the  lowest  point,  so  that  all  the  pus  can  drain 
out.  The  after  treatment  consists  in  washing  the  cavity  with  an  anti- 
septic wash  for  a few  days,  and  the  opening  should  not  be  permitted  to 
close  until  the  cavity  has  entirely  fllled  in.  In  large  wounds  we  must  try 
to  bring  about  the  formation  of  a healthy  granulating  surface  as  soon  as 
possible.  If  necrotic  or  dead  tissue  forms  in  the  wound,  it  must  be  re- 
moved and  a healthy  surface  promoted  by  the  use  of  antiseptic  dressings. 
In  cases  of  local  septicaemia,  this  is  all  the  treatment  necessary.  ^Tien 
the  disease  is  generalized,  the  treatment  is  usually  hopless.  Alcohol, 
salicylate  of  soda,  and  quine  are  the  drugs  usually  given  in  these  cases. 


167 


Plenty  of  clean  water  should  be  allowed.  The  animal  should  be  coaxed  to 
eat  easily  digested  and  highly  nutritious  food  in  order  to  prevent  its  be- 
coming weak. 

I 

INFECTIOUS  ARTHRITIS. 

Causes. — This  disease  occurs  in  pigs  a few  days  old  and  is  caused  by 
septic  germs  that  enter  the  system  by  way  of  the  navel  or  umbilicus.  Filth 
and  dirty  pens  are  among  the  predisposing  causes.  If  the  disease  has  once 
occurred  in  a pen,  it  is  very  apt  to  recur  from  year  to  year.  Sometimes 
it  assumes  the  proportion  of  a local  epidemic  and  causes  very  heavy 
losses  in  a neighborhood. 

Symptoms. — The  pig  becomes  very  weak,  refuses  to  suckle,  is  feverish 
and  usually  has  a diarrhea.  The  affected  joints  are  swollen  and  painful. 
Abscesses  form  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  sometimes  about  the  um- 
bilicus and  may  contain  considerable  pus.  Occasionally  the  abscesses 
about  the  joints  break  or  one  of  the  feet  drops  off.  In  case  the  pus  is 
along  the  umbilicus,  it  may  discharge  outside  and  recovery  takes  place. 
If  it  discharges  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  death  is  sure  to  occur. 

Treatment. — This  is  wholly  preventive.  If  the  disease  exists  in  a lit- 
er, the  pen  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  and  the  bedding  burned.  Sows 
should  not  be  permitted  to  farrow  close  to  an  affected  litter,  or  in  a pen 
where  an  affected  litter  has  been  kept,  unless  it  has  been  well  cleaned  and 
disinfected.  Washing  the  umbilical  cord  with  a ten  per  cent  solution  of 
creolin  or  carbolic  acid  should  be  practiced  when  the  disease  is  present 
in  a herd.  This  will  cause  the  cord  to  become  hard  and  dry,  and  will  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  the  germs  as  well  as  disinfect  the  cord. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES. 

THE  HOG  LOUSE. 

But  one  specie  of  lice  attack  hogs.  It  is  a common  parasite,  however, 
and  often  appears  in  formidable  numbers  on  unthrifty  pigs.  The  hair 
affords  the  lice  but  little  protection,  and  vigorous,  healthy  hogs  are  able 
to  dislodge  the  pests  by  rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  pen  and  against 
one  another.  When  hogs  reach  the  abattoir  during  the  warm  weather. 


168- 


the  adult  louse  is  seldom  found  on  them,  but  plenty  of  “nits”  are  usually 
seen.  The  lice  become  dislodged  during  the  shipment  and  in  the  pens  by 
the  frequent  soakings  with  water  that  the  hogs  receive,  and  by  their 
rubbing  against  each  other.  ' 

It  is  only  when  a hog  is  unthrifty  or  sick  that  lice  are  a serious  men- 
ace to  the  animal.  When  in  this  condition,  the  hog  seems  to  be  unable 
to  dislodge  them  and  they  multiply  very  rapidly.  The  bite  of  the  hog 
louse  is  very  irritating  and  it  lives  by  sucking  the  blood  of  its  host.  The 


The  hog  louse  and  eggs. 


irritation  from  the  bites  makes  it  almost  impossible  for  the  hog  to  rest, 
and  if  sick,  they  help  to  increase  the  anemic  (bloodless)  condition.  Lice 
are  a serious  handicap  to  growing  pigs,  interfering  with  their  appetite 
and  general  nutrition.  They  are  said  to  cause  urticaria  (nettle  rash  or 
heat  sores). 

Because  of  the  .thinness  of  the  hair  and  the  size  of  the  parasite,  it  is 
quite  easily  seen.  The  favorite  seats  are  back  of  the  ears  ,along  the  neck, 
under  the  breast,  back  of  the  arms  and  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  in  fact 


169 


any  place  where  the  skin  is  moderately  thin,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  dislodge 
them. 

The  hog  louse,  {HcBmatopinus  2i7'is,  Nitzsch)  is  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  family.  When  full  grown  it  measures  a fourth  of  an  inch 
or  more  in  length.  Its  general  color  is  gray  with  the  margins  of  the  head 
and  thorax  and  most  of  the  abdomen  dark.  The  head  is  quite  long,  the 
sides  nearly  parallel,  with  strong  eminences  just  back  of  the  antennae 
which  are  set  on  the  side  of  the  head  midway  from  rostrum  to  occiput;  the 
legs  are  lighter  with  dark  bands  at  the  joints;  the  spiracles  are  enclosed 
by  a black,  chitinous  eminence,  and  there  is  a broad,  black  band  broken 
near  the  middle  on  the  last  segment. 

The  male  has  the  abdomen  marked  beneath  with  a large  black  area 
extending  forward  from  the  terminal  segment.  On  the  feet  is  an  organ 
that  helps  the  louse  to  cling  to  the  hair. 

The  eggs  are  six-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length,  by  three-hundredths 
of  an  inch  in  width,  are  slightly  yellow  or  dusky  whitish  in  color,  and 
taper  somewhat  toward  the  point  of  attachment.  They  are  usually  at- 
tached near  the  base  of  the  hairs. 

Treatment. — It  is  more  diflacult  to  kill  the  lice  scattered  around  the 
hog  houses  and  yards  than  it  is  the  ones  on  the  hogs.  For  this  reason 
it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  lice  in  a drove  of  hogs,  as  they  again  be- 
come infected  in  the  sleeping  quarters  or  about  the  pen.  The  hair  affords 
but  little  protection  and  makes  the  application  of  remedies  for  their  de- 
struction quite  easy.  A number  of  different  remedies  and  methods  of  ap- 
plying them  can  be  used.  Kerosene,  any  of  the  coal  tar  products  and 
crude  petroleum  are  common  remedies.  The  hog  can  be  sprayed  or  dipped 
with  these  preparations. 

An  ingenious  method  of  applying  the  oil  is  by  means  of  the  rubbing 
post.  A good  solid  oak  post  a foot  or  a foot  and  a half  in  height  is  placed 
in  position  in  the  hog  lot.  One  hole  is  bored  in  the  top  to  a depth  of 
about  eight  inches,  and  two  at  right  angles  from  the  sides,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vertical  hole.  Soft  pine  pins  are  driven  in  the  side  holes.  The 
upright  hole  is  filled  with  kerosene  and  stoppered.  Next  a burlap  strip 
eight  or  ten  inches  wide  is  wrapped  around  the  post  over  the  side  holes. 
This  after  a time  becomes  soaked  with  kerosene  and  the  pig  will  rub 
against  it  at  the  place  where  it  will  do  the  most  good.  It  is  not,  however, 


170 


a very  thorough  way  of  using  the  remedy.  A better  way  is  to  use  a spray 
pump  having  an  attachment  for  mixing  the  oil  and  water.  Five  parts  of 
water  and  one  part  oil  should  be  used.  Three  or  four  sprayings  are  re- 
quired to  kill  all  of  the  lice,  and  should  be  done  at  intervals  of  a week 


Dipping  vat  for  hogs. 


and  in  the  evening.  If  done  in  the  evening,  by  the  next  morning  the  oil 
is  evaporated  and  there  is  no  danger  of  the  sun  blistering  the  skin,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  applied  during  the  early  part  of  the  day. 

The  coal  tar  preparations  are  to  be  preferred  as  remedies  for  lice. 
These  are  zenoleum,  chloronaptholeum,  milk  oil,  daytholeum  and  a num- 
ber of  others.  The  hog  can  be  sprayed  or  dipped  with  any  of  these  pre- 


171 


parations.  Dipping  is  to  be  preferred  and  is  a very  effective  method  of 
getting  rid  of  lice.  Pigs  a few  weeks  old  can  be  caught  and  immersed  in 
a barrel.  If  a large  number  are  to  be  treated,  it  is  best  to  have  a dipping 
tank.  The  tank  should  be  sunk  in  the  ground  and  contain  enough  of  the 
solution  to  cover  the  hog  when  it  jumps  into  it. 

Crude  oil  is  the  cheapest  material  to  use  as  a dip.  The  tank  is  filled 
with  water  to  the  desired  depth,  and  one  inch  of  the  oil  poured  on  the  top 
of  it.  The  hogs  are  then  driven  through,  and  a thin  layer  of  oil  is  depos- 
ited on  every  part  of  the  animal. 

MANGE.  SCABIES. 

This  affection  of  the  pig  is  frequently  alluded  to  in  journals  devotel 
to  the  swine  industry,  and  is  described  in  nearly  all  of  the  old  works  on 
diseases  of  swine.  It  is  a rare  affection  and  of  little  economic  importance. 
Because  of  the  disease  being  so  frequently  mentioned,  we  include  it  with 
the  other  parasitic  diseases,  although  we  have  never  seen  a case  in  this 
state. 

Hogs  have  two  forms  of  mange;  the  sarcoptic  form,  due  to  the 
Sar copies  scadies  var.  suis,  and  the  demodetic  form,  due  to  the  Demode x 
folliculorum  var.  siiis. 

The  dernodex  of  the  pig,  ( Demodex folliculorum  var  Simon)  is  a 
worm  like  parasite,  shaped  something  like  a laurel  leaf  and  about  one 
one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length  and  one-fifth  as  broad.  It  comprises 
three  parts;  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  the  first  two  being  joined  in  a 
single  organ.  The  mouth  parts  are  horse  shoe  shaped.  Their  length  and 
the  cephlo-thorax  is  about  equal  to  the  length  of  the  abdomen.  The 
mouth  parts  comprise,  first  a pair  of  mandibles;  second  a pair  of  jaws; 
third  a narrow  tongue.  On  the  sides  of  the  thorax  are  four  pairs  of  short, 
mobile  legs  formed  of  three  parts,  the  last  part  being  fitted  with  two 
claws.  The  abdomen  is  long,  conical  and  striated  transversely.  It  shows 
at  the  anterior  part  of  its  ventral  face  a longitudinal  slit,  the  anus,  which 
is  much  larger  in  the  female  than  in  the  male,  and  may  serve  for  copula- 
tion and  ovulation.  The  abdomen  of  the  male  is  less  developed  than  that 
of  the  female,  and  possesses  a genital  armature  situated  immediately  i’l 
front  of  the  anus. 


172 


The  young  parasites  are  small  and  narrow  and  have  but  three  pairs 
of  legs.  * The  eggs  average  twenty  five-hundredths  of  an  inch  long  and  are 
ovoid  in  shape.  The  larva  undergo  three  metamorphosis  before  reaching 
the  adult  state.  It  no  doubt  passes  through  the  different  stages  of  devel- 
opment in  the  follicles  of  the  skin,  but  may  migrate  over  the  surface  of 
the  skin  when  they  reach  the  adult  stage  and  before  laying  eggs. 

Symptoms. — The  finer  parts  of  the  skin  are  affected;  the  snout,  neck, 
chest,  abdomen,  fiank  and  inner  part  of  the  thighs.  The  inflammation 
begins  in  the  region  of  the  hair  follicles  and  sebaceous  glands.  Pimples 
and  pustules  appear,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a grain  of  sand  to  that  of 
a hazel  nut.  As  the  disease  progresses  large  purulent  islands  varying 
in  size  and  containing  many  acari  are  formed.  Ulceration  may  follow. 
In  the  older  diseased  areas  and  when  the  disease  lasts  for  a long  time,  the 
skin  becomes  sclerotic  (hard)  and  many  times  its  normal  thickness.  Inside 
of  the  pimples  the  mites  can  be  found  in  all  stages  of  development.  In  the 
small  abscesses  there  may  be  from  fifty  to  one  hundred,  in  the  larger 
ones  a thousand.  Follicular  mange  is  said  to  be  more  contagious  in 
the  hog  than  it  is  in  other  animals,  and  is  considered  a serious  disease. 

The  scab  mite  {Sarcoptes  scabeii  var.  suis.  Lahr,)  is  one  of  the  larg- 
est of  the  specie  and  when  found,  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  They 
work  deep  in  the  skin,  and  it  is  difiScult  to  find  them.  The  female  is 
about  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  long  and  almost  as  broad.  The  male  is  not 
as  large.  The  mite  has  eight  very  short,  thick,  conical  shaped  legs,  the 
two  posterior  ones  being  quite,  or  almost  concealed  beneath  the  abdominal 
surface.  On  the  dorsal  surface  are  a number  of  parallel  ridges  inter- 
rupted by  conical  projections.  Toward  the  posterior  part  of  the  body 
are  a few  hairs. 

Symptoms. — It  begins  with  a violent  itching  about  the  head,  especially 
at  the  base  of  the  ears,  about  the  eyes,  and  gradually  extends  to  the  neck, 
withers,  inner  surfaces  of  the  thighs  and  the  whole  body.  The  invaded 
areas  of  the  skin  are  first  covered  with  little  red  pimples.  Abrasions 
from  the  hog  rubbing  itself  soon  occur.  The  secretions  and  scales  from 
the  skin  gradually  accumulate,  the  bristles  drop  out  or  become  matted 
and  the  skin  is  greatly  thickened  and  wrinkled.  In  old  cases  the.  scales 
on  the  skin  give  it  a dirty  white  color. 

The  mites  live  in  galleries  in  the  deeper  layers  of  the  skin  and  they 
multiply  rapidly.  Hog  mange  is  not  communicable  to  other  animals. 


173 


Treatment. — Hog  mange  is  difficult  to  treat.  It  does  not  seem  to  spreal 
rapidly  among  hogs,  and  can  be  controlled  by  isolating  or  destroying  the 
affected  animals.  The  pig  houses  and  pens  should  be  disinfected,  or  the 
pigs  moved  to  fresh  quarters  after  being  treated.  The  skin  must  be 
rubbed  with  a strong  alkaline  soap  before  applying  the  remedy  in  order 
to  remove  as  many  of  the  scabs  as  possible.  A tobacco  dip  can  be  used, 
but  in  severe  cases  a mixture  of  eight  parts  of  turpentine  and  one  part 
flowers  of  sulphur  is  a better  remedy.  It  is  best  to  apply  the  remedy  with 
a brush'  and  rub  the  skin  quite  hard.  Sulphur  or  nitrate  of  lead  ointment 
may  be  applied  when  the  infection  is  slight. 

INTERNAL  PARASITES. 

THE  COMMON  ROUND  WORK. 

Ascaris  Suilla. 

The  natural  habitat  of  the  common  round  worm  is  the  small  intestine. 
It  is  sometinaes  found  in  the  large  intestines  and  the  stomach.  Its  pres- 
ence in  the  stomach  occurs  only  when  the  hog  is  dead,  and  is  reached  by 
a reverse  peristalsis  of  the  intestines  or  the  movement  of  the  worms 
themselves.  When  quite  active  and  present  in  large  numbers,  they  may 
work  forward  into  the  oesophagus.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  them  ex- 
tending into  the  common  bile  duct,  some  even  enter  the  gall  bladder, 
while  others  imbed  themselves  in  the  ducts  coming  from  the  various 
lobes  of  the  liver. 

In  young  unthrifty  pigs  round  worms  are  common  parasites,  and  it  is 
not  unusual  to  find  from  ten  to  twenty  of  them  in  a single  individual.  They 
may  be  present  in  such  numbers  as  to  almost  fill  the  lumen  of  the  in- 
testines for  several  feet  of  its  length.  There  are  few  pigs  over  the  coun- 
try that  do  not  harbor  this  parasite  to  a greater  or  less  extent.  Men  who’ 
treat  hogs  for  cholera  and  swine  plague,  are  quite  familiar  with  this 
worm,  and  report  it  as  being  quite  common. 

Description  '’J’he  ylsra  issiill/a,  Dujardiii,  is  a lartre  round  wonn,  lajK*!'- 
Ing  at  both  ends,  and  white,  or  yellowish  white  in  color.  The  body  is 
firm  and  elastic,  the  digestive  tract  quite  complete.  The  average  length  of 
the  female  is  ten  inches,  that  of  the  male  six  and  a half  inches.  The  head 
is  small  and  armed  with  three  lips,  the  upper  one  having  a papillae  at  each 


174 


of  its  inferior  angles,  the  other  two  at  the  middle  of  their  base.  The  fe- 
male organs  consist  of  a pair  of  convoluted  tubes,  each  dilating  into  a 
uterus  and  uniting  to  form  a single  tube,  the  vagina.  The  opening  from 
the  vagina,  the  vulva,  is  situated  toward  the  anterior  third  of  the  body  in 


Large  round  worms. 


the  middle  of  an  anular  constriction.  The  male  organs  are  simple,  con- 
sisting of  a single  convoluted  tube  dilated  below  to  form  a seminal  vesicle, 
and  terminating  in  an  ejaculatory  duct  which  opens  into  the  cloaca.  The 
posterior  extremity  is  furnished  with  a large  number  of  papillae,  some 


175 


of  which  are  back  of  the  anus.  The  ova  are  about  one  four-hundredths  of 
an  inch  in  length. 

Source  of  Infection. — The  eggs  of  the  ascaride  are  passed  out  with  the 
excreta  and  drop  to  the  ground.  Moisture  and  warmth  are  necessary  for 
their  hatching,  but  they  seem  to  be  able  to  live  under  unfavorable  condi- 
tions and  will  resist  drying  for  some  time.  When  the  conditions  are  fav- 
orable, the  eggs  hatch  and  the  pig  becomes  infected  by  taking  the  im- 
mautre  form  into  the  digestive  tract  along  with  the  food,  or  the  embryo, 
when  well  formed  in  the  egg,  reaches  the  digestive  tract  with  the  food, 
the  shell  is  dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice  and  the  embryo  liberated.  Earth 
eating  pigs  are  almost  sure  to  become  infected.  Feeding  hogs  on  dirry 
feeding  floors  or  on  the  ground,  and  drinking  from  ponds  and  dirty  water- 
ing troughs  are  common  sources  of  infection.  The  best  of  hygenic  con- 
ditions may  not  prevent  infection,  but  will  greatly  lessen  it. 

Symptoms. — Unless  a number  of  ascarides  are  present  in  the  intestines, 
no  marked  symptoms  of  disease  occur.  Whenever  the  pigs  are  kept  under 
conditions  unfavorable  for  growth,  they  usually  become  infested  with  a 
large  number  of  intestinal  parasites,  and  the  irritation  to  the  intestines 
will  help  in  causing  the  animal  to  become  stunted.  They  also  obstruct 
the  passage  of  the  food  along  the  intestines,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
colony  of  worms  taxes  the  animal  to  some  extent.  The  symptoms  shown 
do  not  differ  greatly  from  those  seen  in  chronic  indigestion.  The  pres- 
ence of  worms  in  the  faeces  help  very  much  in  diagnosing  the  trouble. 
Pigs  weighing  from  twenty  flve  to  one  hundred  pounds  are  the  most  fre- 
quent sufferers.  In  thrifty  old  hogs,  they  are  never  present  in  large  enough 
numbers  to  cause  any  harm.  Young  hogs  are  sometimes  very  restless,  and 
may  manifest  other  nervous  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  is  very  important,  and  consists 
in  bettering  the  sanitary  conditions  under  which  the  pigs  are  kept.  Wal- 
low holes  should  not  be  allowed  to  form  in  the  yards,  the  water  supply 
should  come  from  a deep  well,  and  clean  feeding  floors  and  watering 
troughs  provided  as  far  as  possible.  To  enal)le  the  pigs  to  resist  invasion, 
they  should  be  kept  in  good  condition. 

To  destroy  the  worms  or  drive  them  out  of  the  intestines,  a number 
of  different  drugs  can  be  used.  The  simplest  trealment  for  intestinal 
worms  is  turpentine  in  milk.  The  dose  given  is  one  teaspoonful  of  tur- 


176 


pentine  for  every  eighty  or  one  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight,  and  is  more 
effective  if  repeated  three  days  in  succession.  A mixture  of  powdered 
areca  nut  and  worm  seed  in  teaspoonful  doses  is  also  recommended. 


Ijarge  round  worni;5  as  found  on  opening  the  intestine. 

Santonin  five  grains  and  calomel  three  grains  for  every  eighty  pounds  of 
live  weight  is  a very  effective  remedy  for  round  worms.  All  powdered 
drugs  are  best  given  in  ground  feed  and  should  be  well  mixed  with  it, 


177 


or  each  pig  will  not  get  the  proper  dose.  In  dosing  a large  number,  they 
should  be  divided  into  small  bunches  and  each  bunch  dosed  separate. 
The  best  results  are  gotten  when  the  pigs  are  starved  for  about  twelve 
hours  before  giving  the  remedy,  and  when  a physic  is  given  along  with 
it  or  immediately  after.  Castor  oil  or  calotnel  are  the  physics  usually 
given,  especially  the  latter,  as  it  is  very  effective  and  can  be  readily  given 
along  with  powdered  drugs.  Turpentine  need  not  be  followed  by  a 
purgative. 


THE  THORN  HEADED  WORM. 

Among  the  parasites  of  the  small  intestines  occurs  one  specie  of  the 
genus  Echinorhynchus.  It  is  usually  found  with  its  proboscis  imbedded 
in  the  wall  of  the  small  intestine,  well  toward  the  anterior  part.  It  Is 
seldom  found  in  the  large  intestines.  The  round  and  thorn  headed  worms 
are  frequently  present  in  the  same  animal,  but  the  two  genera  are  quite 
distinct,  and  the  most  careless  observer  is  able  to  distinguish  between 
them.  The  echinorhychus  is  not  as  common  as  the  ascaride,  and  is  not 
found  in  as  large  numbers.  It  is  uncommon  to  find  more  than  five  or  six 
thorn  headed  worms  in  the  one  animal.  The  loss  occasioned  by  this 
parasite  some  years  is  quite  large.  A single  slaughter  house  in  this  state 
estimated  their  losses  at  $7,000  due  to  poor  sausage  casings.  This  must 
be  only  a trifie  compared  with  the  loss  to  farmers  from  lack  of  thrift. 

Description. — The  Echmorhynchta  gigas,  Goeze,  is  larger  than  the 
ascaride.  The  female  when  full  grown  is  the  largest  worm  infesting  hogs. 
The  'average  length  of  the  male  is  three  inches,  that  of  the  female  ten 
inches.  The  body  is  milky  white  in  color,  irregularly  wrinkled  trans- 
versley  and  tapering  to  a blunt  point  at  its  posterior  extremity.  At  the 
anterior  extremity  is  a retractile  proboscis  or  rostellum,  almost  globular 
in  shape  and  armed  with  six  or  eight  rows  of  chitinous  hooks  which  curve 
backwards.  This  organ  can  be  retracted  into  a muscular  sheath  to  which 
are  attached  strong  retractor  muscles  situated  toward  the  anterior  part  of 
the  body  cavity.  At  the  base  of  the  rostellum,  and  hanging  down  into 
the  body  cavity  are  two  muscular  sacks,  that  are  considered  by  some 
representatives  of  a digestive  tract.  No  digestive  tract  is  present.  The 
genital  opening  In  both  sexes  is  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body 


178 


The  eggs  average  about  one  two-hundred  and  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  are  smooth  and  cylindrical  in  shape. 


Thorn-headed  worm  attached  to  the  intestine. 


179 


Source  of  Infection. — The  eggs  pass  out  with  the  faeces,  become  mixei 
with  the  manure  and  scattered  around  the  pens  and  pastures.  White  grubs 
which  are  very  plentiful  in  dung  heaps  become  infested  with  the  immature 


|. 

r 


1 


/ 

\ 

Thorn-headed  worms. 

form  of  the  worm,  and  act  as  intermediate  hosts.  Hogs  become  infested 
by  eating  the  grubs  which  they  will  search  very  diligently  for  in  loose 


180 


rich  soil.  The  per  cent,  of  infection  will  vary  according  to  the  locality 
and  the  season  of  the  year.  Those  pasturing  upon  sod,  especially  clover 
sod,  show  greatest  infection. 

Symptoms. — When  a number  of  thorn  headed  worms  are  present  in 
the  intestines,  they  greatly  irritate  the  lining  membrane  and  cause  serious 
symptoms  of  disease,  especially  in  young  pigs.  The  symptoms  as  de- 
scribed by  observers  are  loss  of  appetite,  constipation,  diarrhea,  restless- 
ness, general  emaciation,  weakness  of  the  loins,  and  in  very  young  pigs, 
convulsions  and  spasms.  When  the  infection  is  light,  no  noticeable 
symptoms  occur. 

At  the  point  where  the  worm  attaches  itself,  the  intestinal  wall  is  in- 
flamed. The  inflamed  tissue  is  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
depressed  in  the  center  where  the  rostellum  is  imbedded.  Sometimes  the 
head  of  the  worm  is  buried  more  deeply  than  the  mucous  coat,  and  the 
muscular  and  serous  coats  become  inflamed.  Perforations  of  the  intestines 
have  been  reported,  but  such  a lesion  should  be  questioned.  When  the 
intestines  are  badly  infested  by  parasites,  they  are  easily  torn  when 
handled  because  of  the  inflammatory  changes  in  their  walls,  and  the 
tear  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  a perforation. 

Treatment. — As  a preventive  measure,  we  should  not  allow  hogs  to 
root  around  old  straw  stacks  and  manure  heaps.  Sometimes  white  grubs 
are  very  plentiful  in  old  hog  lots.  Plowing  the  lots  occasionally  will  help 
to  free  them  from  grubs.  The  turpentine  treatment  as  recommended  for 
the  common  round  worm  is  a very  effective  remedy,  and  should  be  given* 
three  days  in  succession.  Better  results  are  gotten  if  the  hogs  are  dieted 
over  night,  and  the  turpentine  administered  in  the  morning. 

THE  PIN  WORM. 


The  pin  worm,  Oesophagostnma  de?itatu7n,  Rud,  is  (piite  small.  It  in- 
habits the  caecum  and  colon  of  hogs,  and  may  be  found  in  large  numbers 
in  this  part  of  the  intestine.  Unless  looked  .for  carefully,  it  escapes  notice. 

Description. — The  body  is  white  or  brownish  in  color,  straight  and 
pointed  at  both  ends.  The  male  is  half  an  inch  in  length;  the  female 
a little  longer.  The  mouth  is  circular  and  surrounded  by  a ridge  on  which 
are  several  papillae.  The  caudal  pouch  of  the  male  is  bell  shaped  and 


181 


with  a faintly  marked  middle  lobe.  That  of  the  female  is  point- 
ed. The  vulva  is  situated  in  front  of  the  anus  and  surrounded  by  a raised 
ring. 


Caecum  worms. 


Pin  worms  cause  but  little  if  any  digestive  disturbance.  Irritation  to 
the  walls  of  the  caecum  or  colon  does  not  interfere  as  much  with  digestion, 
as  would  an  irritation  to  the  stomach  or  small  intestine.  They  are  seldom 
present  in  large  enough  numbers  in  the  intestine  to  cause  any  noticeable 
irritation,  but  no  doubt  in  conjunction  with  other  parasites,  they  help  to 
aggravate  the  symptoms  of  parasitism.  The  pig  becomes  infested  through 
the  food  supply. 


THE  WHIP  WORM. 


Descriotion. — The  whip  worm,  Tric]iocef)halus  cr^matus,  Kud,  is  com 
monly  found  in  the  large  intestines,  generally  the  caecum.  It  is  about 
one  and  a half  inches  in  length.  The  anterior  two-thirds  of  the  body  is 
capillary  and  very  thin,  the  posterior  one-third  suddenly  expanded,  thick 
and  cylindrical  in  shape.  The  caudal  extremity  of  the  male  is  coiled,  and 
a number  of  short  spines  are  seen  behind  and  around  the  sheath  of  the 
spicule,  the  point  of  which  is  rounded. 

S 


182 


Method  of  Infection. — Pig  becomes  infected  by  taking  the  eggs  into  the 
digestive  tract  along  with  the  food.  The  eggs  usually  contain  well  formed 
embryos  which  are  said  to  develop  into  the  adult  form  in  about  four 
weeks. 

Symptoms. — No  serious  trouble  is  attributed  to  either  whip  or  pin 
worms.  When  present  in  large  numbers,  they  no  doubt  cause  considerable 
irritation  and  may  aggravate  the  symptorus  in  other  parasitic  affections. 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  as  recommended  for  other  forms  Is 
indicated  here.  In  addition  rectal  injections  of  soapy  water  can  be  ad- 
ministered. 


THE  KIDNEY  WORM. 

When  a hog  is  paralyzed  in  its  hind  quarters  swine  breeders  usually 
call  the  disease  “kidney  worm.”  This  statement  may  also  be  used  when 
the  pig  is  not  doing  as  well  as  it  should.  A few  years  ago  the  kidney 
worm  was  claimed  by  some  to  cause  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague.  The 
origin  of  these  statements  is  not  reliable,  and  the  presence  of  the  worm 
under  such  conditions  is  only  a coincidence. 

The  kidney  worm  occurs  in  the  fat  around  the  kidney,  in  the  kid- 
neys and  sometimes  in  the  liver.  It  is  usually  found  in  cysts  or  canals 
and  several  may  be  seen  in  one  cyst.  They  more  often  occur  in  pairs. 
As  a result  of  the  irritation,  there  i.;  more  connective  tissue  in  the  region 
of  the  cysts  than  in  the  rest  of  the  fat,  and  it  may  contain  pus.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  kidney  worms  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  and  fre- 
quently its  walls  and  the  ureter  are  inflamed  and  thickened.  Sometimes 
the  kidneys  are  infiammed  and  contain  abscesses.  This  latter  condition  in 
the  abscence  of  the  kidney  worm  is  not  uncommon. 

Description. — The  kidney  worm,  Stephanurus  deniatus.  Dies,  is  mottled 
but  when  seen  against  the  fat  appears  dark  colored.  The  body  is  cylin- 
drical, plump,  and  slightly  tapering  at  both  ends.  The  male  is  from  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a half  in  length  and  about  one  twenty-fourth  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  caudal  extremity  forms  a blunt  end,  in  which  is  situated 
the  anal  and  genital  openings.  Surrounding  the  body  openings  is  a six 
lobed  bursa.  There  are  two  long  slender  spicules  having  muscles  at- 
tached to  their  upper  ends,  and  when  extruded,  can  be  drawn  within  the 


183 


body.  The  female  is  some  larger  than  the  male  and  will  average  about 
an  inch  and  a half  in  length  and  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
curved  tail  has  a conical  shaped  tip  and  is  winged  lateraly.  The  anal 
opening  is  very  close  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and  ventral;  the  vulva 


Kidney  worms  in  the  kidney. 


is  situated  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  front  of  the  anal  opening. 
The  reproductive  organs  consist  of  two  ovaries,  two  oviducts,  two  uteri 
and  a blcornate  vagina.  The  eggs  are  oval  in  shape  and  about  one  two 
hundred  and  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  the  longer  diameter. 

The  mouth  is  terminal,  circular  in  shape  and  surrounded  by  papillae. 


184 


The  alimentary  tube  can  be  divided  into  buccal  cavity,  oesophagus,  stom- 
ach, intestine,  and  rectum. 

Method  of  Infection. — The  way  in  which  hogs  can  become  infected  has 
never  been  demonstrated.  In  all  probabilities  the  eggs  pass  out  in  the 
urine,  and  the  embryo  after  developing  for  a time  in  some  moist  place 
or  in  water,  is  taken  into  the  body  with  the  food  the  same  as  in  other 
parasitic  forms.  It  is  believed  that  no  intermediate  host  is  required  and 
the  infection  occurs  direct. 

S5unptoms. — Hogs  affected  by  the  kidney  worm  rarely  show  symptoms 
of  disease.  In  some  cases  diseased  changes  are  noted  in  the  kidneys  and 
in  the  fat  around  them;  sometimes  the  liver  shows  a few  lesions.  In 
these  cases  the  symptoms  are  the  same  as  manifested  in  dis- 
eases of  these  organs.  This  parasite  seems  to  be  of  little  economic  im- 
portance. 

Treatment. — The  preventive  treatment  indicated  is  the  same  as  for 
the  intestinal  forms.  It  is  useless  to  try  and  treat  them  as  they  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  any  medicine,  unless  by  such  drugs  as  are  eliminated 
by  way  of  the  kidneys. 


THE  LUNG  WORM 

Whooping  Cough. 

The  lung  worm,  Strongylus  paradoxus,  Mehlis,  is  a common  parasite 
of  pigs  under  six  months  of  age.  It  is  found  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  When 
the  infection  is  slight  the  worms  are  found  mostly  toward  the  apex  and 
margin  of  the  lungs.  In  these  cases  the  lesions  are  not  marked,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  the  lung  very  carefully  in  order  to  detect  them. 
In  examining  lung  tissue  for  this  parasite,  it  is  best  to  cut  off  the  apex, 
and  by  squeezing  it  between  the  fingers,  force  the  lung  worm  out  of  the 
broncheole  onto  the  cut  surface  of  the  lungs,  where  they  can  be  readily 
seen.  It  is  the  only  lung  worm  affecting  hogs,  and  may  occur  in  sheep. 

Description. — The  male  is  a little  over  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  bursa  is  provided  with  numerous  folds;  the  caudal  extremity 
at  the  base  of  the  bursa  is  curved  toward  the  ventral  aspect  and  two  long 
tubular  spicules  project  outside  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  The  female 


185 


is  froni  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a half  long.  The  vulva  is  surrounded  b/ 
a vesicle  or  bladder  like  body,  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Surrounding  the 
mouth  are  six  lobes,  the  two  lateral  ones  being  the  largest  . The  color  is 
whitish  or  brown. 

Lesions. — These  are  usually  slight,  and  depend  on  the  number  of  lung 
worms  present  or  the  duration  of  the  infection.  The  worms  are  found 
in  the  bronchial  tubes  mixed  with  the  mucous,  and  when  badly  infected, 
the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  smaller  tubes  becomes  inflamed.  As  well 
as  irritating  the  air  tubes,  it  acts  as  a mechanical  obstruction  by  plugging 
up  the  smaller  bronchi,  and  causing  a lobular  pneumonia.  The  involved 
air  cells  usually  return  to  the  normal,  but  may  go  through  other  diseased 
changes.  In  some  cases  the  effect  is  to  enlarge  the  bronchi  or  to  cau-se 
saculation. 

Method  of  Infection. — The  life  history  of  the  lung  worm  is  not  fully 
known.  In  most  domestic  animals  infection  with  lung  worms  depends 
largely  on  the  humidity  of  the  soil,  and  is  more  prevalent  on  swampy 
pastures  containing  ponds  and  stagnant  water  than  it  is  on  high  ground. 
This  disease  is  more  prevalent  during  wet  seasons.  Lung  worms  are  often 
present  in  pigs  when  kept  under  the  best  possible  conditions. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  Before  they  hatch  it  seems 
necessary  for  them  to  be  expelled  by  coughing,  and  undergo  a part  of 
their  development  outside  of  the  body.  Just  what  these  changes  are  is 
not  known.  In  all  probability  the  pig  becomes  infected  through  the  food 
supply,  by  rooting  in  the  mud  and  by  inhaling  the  immature  form  in  the 
dust  that  may  accumulate  about  the  sleeping  quarters  and  pens,  as  a 
result  of  the  mud  carried  on  the  bodies  of  the  animals. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  is  largely  confined  to  pigs.  The  first  symp- 
toms begin  as  a cough,  occuring  upon  leaving  the  bed,  after  exercise  and 
after  eating.  In  badly  infected  cases  the  paroxysm  of  coughing  is  quite 
severe,  beginning  slowly  and  becoming  harder  and  harder,  and  finally  the 
pig  will  put  the  nose  on  the  ground  and  press  hard  while  coughing.  The 
paroxysm  ends  by  the  expulsion  of  some  mucous  or  by  vomiting.  This  is 
referred  to  frequently  in  the  journals  as  whooping  cough  in  pigs.  The 
cough  may  become  frequent  and  persistent,  and  is  generally  spoken  of  as 
chronic.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  infection  is  so  slight  that  the 
presence  of  the  lung  worm  is  not  suspected  by  the  owner.  The  appetite 


186 


remains  good  in  such  cases  and  the  thriftiness  of  the  pig  is  not  interfered 
with.  Death  seldom  occurs  and  as  the  pig  grows  and  thrives,  it  gradually 
recovers  from  the  affection. 

Treatment. — The  most  important  part  of  the  treatment  is  to  keep  the 
pig  in  a helthy,  growing  condition.  The  hygienic  conditions  in  the  pas- 
tures and  pens  should  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible.  The  drinking 
water  should  be  pure  and  all  ponds  and  mud  holes  drained  or  filled  in. 
Clean  watering  troughs  and  feeding  fioors  are  also  necessary.  The  sleep- 
ing quarters  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  dusty.  Medicine  is  of  little 
value  in  this  disease.  A fumigation  of  tar  or  turpentine  may  be  tried  if 
desired.  However,  more  can  be  accomplished  by  feeding  a highly  nu- 
tritious ration,  and  waiting  until  age  will  give  the  necessary  strength 
and  resistance  to  overcome  the  disease. 


ECHINOCOCCUS,  HYDATIDS. 

The  disease  caused  by  the  larval  stage  of  the  Tcenia  echinococcus 
Lieb,  is  known  as  hydatid,  or  echinococcus  disease.  Dogs  and  wolves  act  as 
hosts  for  the  mature  form  of  this  tapeworm,  and  the  immature  form  ]s 
found  in  domestic  animals.  It  is  commonly  found  in  the  liver,  lungs, 
etc.,  of  hogs  and  cattle  killed  in  the  abattoir.  Man  may  also  act  as  host 
for  the  larval  form. 

Description. — The  larval  form  appears  in  the  form  of  cysts,  generally 
in  the  liver,  but  they  may  be  found  in  the  lungs,  heart  and  various  other 
organs  of  the  body.  After  four  weeks  from  the  time  of  becoming  infected 
by  the  embryo,  small  cysts  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
may  be  noticed  in  the  infected  organs.  The  outer  wall  of  the  cyst  is 
formed  by  the  connective  tissue  of  the  organ  in  which  it  is  located.  With- 
in this  is  the  young  parasite.  Its  outer  part  or  capsule  is  rather  trans- 
parent, the  inside  granular  and  somewhat  condensed  on  the  periphary 
and  containing  cells  which  are  distinctly  separated  from  one  another.  The 
cyst  grows  slowly  and  at  the  end  of  eight  weeks  has  about  doubled  in 
size.  The  elastic  cuticle  is  then  much  thicker  and  its  inner  surface  is  cov- 
evered  by  a thin  membrane,  the  germinal  layer,  which  represents  the  con- 
densed granular  contents.  In  the  center  of  the  cyst  is  a cavity  containing 


187 


a clear  watery  fluid.  As  the  hydatid  grows,  the  cuticle  becomes  stratifled 
and  the  germinal  layer  becomes  differentiated  into  small  cells  occupying 
the  periphery,  large  cells  on  the  inside  and  granular  cells  occupying  the 


irregular  spaces  on  the  surface.  At  the  end  of  nineteen  weeks,  the  parasite 
is  about  two  fifths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Protuberances  gradually 
grow  in  to  the  cavity  and  develop  into  broad  capsules,  and  it  is  in  these 
capsules  that  the  head  of  the  succeeding  generation  of  tape  worm  de- 
velops. Numerous  broods  of  capsules  may  form  in  one  cyst  and  many 
thousand  heads  may  be  present  in  the  one  hydatid.  Several  modes  or 
growth  are  open  for  the  parasite.  Centers  of  growth  may  form  in  the 
wall  of  the  hydatid;  these  are  called  daughter  cysts.  In  turn  a third 
generation  may  form  in  the  same  manner  in  the  daughter  cyst;  these  are 
called  grand-daughter  cysts.  As  they  develop,  they  will  burst  through 
that  part  of  the  hydatid  wall  offering  the  least  resistance,  sometimes  on 
the  inside  of  the  wall  and  sometimes  on  the  outside  of  it.  For  this  reason 
they  are  called  endogenous  and  exogenous  cysts.  When  a group  of  small 
hydatids  lie  close  together  and  are  connected  by  a common  stroma,  they 
are  called  Echinococcus  multilocularis.  Sometimes  as  a result  of  the 
formation  of  daughter  and  grand-daughter  cysts,  they  take  on  the  form 
of  a bunch  of  grapes;  they  are  then  named  E.  racemosus.  Sometimes  the 


188 


hydatid  is  headless  and  consequently  sterile.  This  condition  is  called 
Acephlocyst,  and  does  not  represent  the  final  larval  stage. 

The  changes  in  the  tissues  vary.  There  may  be  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  lungs  or  liver.  The  serous  membrane  which  covers  the 


Position  of  the  lif'ad  in  hydatius  of  ihe  brain. 


liver  is  thickened,  and  may  be  ,ciaed  to  the  neighboring  organs.  Its  sur- 
face is  uneven,  the  sali'^ut  r j-.es  corresponding  to  a cyst.  There  is  an 
atrophy  of  the  liver  cells,  tn  . amount  of  connective  tissue  is  increased  and 
forms  a capsule  immediaitiy  surrounding  the  parasite;  the  surface  of  the 
capsule,  which  is  smooth  and  glistening,  is  entirely  separated  from  the 
cuticle  of  the  cyst.  On  section  the  liver  is  found  to  be  filled  with  cavities, 
with  the  liver  tissue  between  in  the  form  of  small  islands  or  ribbons  of 
various  dimensions.  In  time  the  cysts  degenerate  into  a caseous  or  gela- 
tinous mass  in  which  we  can  find  the  hooks  of  the  larval  tape  worm. 


189 


Method  of  Infection. — The  hydatids  develop  as  a result  of  the  ingestion 
of  the  eggs  of  the  adult  tape  worm.  Dogs  infested  with  the  adult  worm 
may  scatter  the  eggs  in  places  where  they  can  infect  the  food  or  drinking 
water  of  the  hog.  In  countries  where  dogs  are  numerous,  hogs  seem  to 
be  more  commonly  infected,  and  in  the  region  of  slaughter  houses  where 
insufficient  attention  is  paid  to  the  destruction  of  the  immature  form, 
dogs  may  become  infested  by  eating  the  diseased  tissues. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are  not  characteristic  and  are  frequently 
entirely  absent.  When  the  liver  contains  a large  number  of  cysts,  pressure 
on  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen  just  over  the  organ  may  cause  the  ani- 
mal pain.  On  percussion  we  find  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the  liver,  if 
the  increase  in  size  is  many  times  the  normal,  the  abdominal  viscera  are 
greatly  pressed  on,  the  function  of  the  organ  is  greatly  interfered  with 
and  digestive  disturbances  occur.  When  the  lungs  are  involved,  symptoms 
of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  may  be  manifested.  If  any  important  organ 
is  severly  infested,  death  may  result. 


Dropsy  as  seen  in  hydated  disease  of  the  liver.  Tlie  appearance  in  the  same  when  caused 

hy  other  liver  affections. 

Treatment. — Preventive  treatment  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  it 
consists  in  destroying  all  organs  infected  with  hydatids.  Dogs  known 
10  be  infested  with  the  adult  taenias  should  be  destroyed.  It  is  danger- 
ous to  keep  dogs  in  this  condition,  as  man  as  well  as  pigs  may  become 
infected.  If  such  precautions  were  used,  ilie  disease  could  be  finally  ex- 
terminated. This  disease  is  apparently  on  the  increase  in  this  country. 


190 


THE  LIVER  FLUKE. 

The  common  liver  tliike,  Fasciola  hepatica,  Linn,  is  more  common  in 
cattle  and  sheep  than  it  is  in  hogs.  Liver  flukes  are  apparently  of  little 
importance  in  hogs  in  this  country.  They  may  affect  other  organs  be- 
sides the  liver,  but  this  is  the  chief  abode  of  the  parasite.  It  is  gener- 
ally found  in  low  lands  and  is  more  prevalent  on  wet  than  on  dry  years. 

Description*. — Fasciola  hepatica,  L.  Body;  pale  brown,  leaf  like,  flat- 
tened, 18-15  mm.  long  by  4-13  mm.  broad.  The  anterior  3-4  mm.  forms 
a rather  thick,  conical  portion  which  is  followed  by  a large  flat,  leaf-like 
body  of  elongate,  oval  form;  this  latter  widens  rapidly  to  the  maximum 
breadth,  and  then  decreases  gradually  in  width  to  the  posterior  end  which 
is  bluntly  pointed;  cuticle  is  covered  with  numerous  spines  placed  side 
by  side  in  alternating  rows;  oral  sucker  is  anterior,  round  and  terminal, 
but  inclines  ventral;  acetabulum  about  3-4  mm.  caudad  of  oral  sucker, 
with  which  it  closely  agrees  in  size;  genital  pore  median,  about  half  way 
between  oral  sucker  and  acetabulum;  oesophagus  rarely  over  1-1- times 
as  long  as  the  pharynx;  intestine  dentritic;  cirrus  frequently  extended 
from  pore  and  then  recurved;  testicles  profusely  branched,  situated  for  the 
greater  part  posterior  to  transverse  vitello-duct.  Vulva  is  at  side  of  cir- 
rus; uterus  forms  a rosette  with  its  numerous  coils,  and  is  frequently 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  as  a dark-brown  spot,  immediately  posterior  to 
the  acetabelum;  ovary  branched,  anterior  of  transverse  vitello  duct;  vitel- 
logene  glands  profusely  branched,  and  occupy  the  entire  margin  of  the 
body  from  acetabulum  to  posterior  extremity;  they  lie  dorsally  as  well 
as  ventrally  of  the  intestine,  becoming  wider  posterially.  Oviparous. 

Eggs;  oval,  0.13-0.14  mm.  long  by  0.075  to  0.09  mm.  broad;  miracidum 
conical,  ciliated  with  oval  papillae,  two  cup  shaped  eye  spots,  rudimentary 
intestine;  metamorphosis  (sporo  cyst,  redia,  cercariae)  take  place  in  small 
snails  of  the  genus  Linneae;  (L.,  trucatula,  and  others.)  Cercaria  whitish, 
owing  to  excessive  development  of  capsule  glands;  encysts  upon  plants. 


♦Stiles,  Ch.  Warden  and  Hassell,  Albert — 

Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine  and  Veterinary  Archives,  XV.  pp. 
302  ,1894. 


191 


Life  History  of  Fluke  and  Method  of  Infection.— Although  the  life  his- 
tory of  fluke  is  of  little  importance  to  us  at  present,  it  is  well  for  us  to 
know  something  about  their  development.  Their  life  history  in  brief  is  as 
follows:  Each  adult  worm  is  capable  of  producing  an  immence  number 

of  eggs  (thirty  seven  to  forty  flve  thousand.)  These  pass  down  the 
billiary  passages  into  the  intestines  and  become  mixed  with  the  faeces. 
Those  that  reach  some  favorable  place  for  development  after  a long  or 
short  period  of  incubation  (from  ten  days  to  three  months)  depending 
on  the  amount  of  heat  and  mositure,  become  a ciliated  embryo.  The 
ciliated  embryo  (Miracidium)  swims  around  in  the  water  and  seeks  certain 
snails  (Linnea  trucatula,  L.  oahuensis,  L.  rubella),  penetrates  into  the 
respiratory  cavity  of  these  animals  and  encysts.  The  sporocyst,  which  it 
is  now  called,  at  the  end  of  about  fourteen  days  is  about  one  fiftieth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  the  germ  cells  present  develop  into  a third  generation, 
known  as  rediae.  The  rediae  escape  from  the  sporocyst  when  the  latter 
is  from  two  to  four  weeks  old.  They  then  wander  to  the  liver  of  the 
snail  and  from  the  germ  cells  present  in  the  body  cavity  of  the  parasite 
develop  the  mext  generation,  the  cercariae.  This  latter  form  resembles 
the  adult  parasite.  It  may  remain  in  the  body  of  the  snail  for  some  time 
or  pass  out  and  attach  itself  on  the  grass  or  acquatic  plants  around  the 
margins  of  the  pond  and  encyst.  The  different  animals  become  infected 
from  eating  these  snails  along  with  the  food,  or  from  eating  grass  infest- 
ed with  the  cercariae.  The  development  will  last  from  ten  to  twelve 
weeks.  Each  sporocyst  may  give  rise  to  from  five  to  eight  rediae,  and 
each  rediae  to  from  twelve  to  twenty  cercariae. 

Lesions  and  Symptoms. — These  are  directly  dependent  on  the  presence 
of  the  flukes  in  the  body,  and  as  the  liver  is  the  organ  generally  affected 
and -the  chief  abode  of  the  parasites,  the  principal  lesions  are  in  this  or- 
gan. The  flukes  are  confined  to  the  gall  ducts,  but  may  pass  out  into  the 
proper  tissue  of  the  liver.  There  is  a catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  bile 
ducts.  The  smaller  ones  may  become  dilated  and  form  cysts.  The  inflam- 
matory processes  extend  from  the  ducts  to  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
liver  and  it  becomes  hypertrophied,  and  the  liver  cells  are  destroyed  to 
some  extent,  depending  on  the  amount  of  infection,  and  a large  portion  of 
the  liver  is  a mass  of  cicatritial  tissue.  The  gall  is  changed  in  character, 


192 


is  less  thick,  greenish  brown  or  dirty  red  in  color  and  contains  liver  cells 
blood  cells,  etc. 

These  changes  in  the  liver  and  in  other  organs  as  well,  lead  to 
changes  in  the  body  nutrition  and  the  animal  may  become  anemic,  weak 
and  emaciated. 

THE  LUNG  FLUKE. 

The  lung  duke,  Varagonimus  \V estermanii^  is  sometimes  found  en- 
cisted  in  the  lungs  of  hogs  killed  in  the  abattoir.  Dr.  A.  J.  Payne,  chief 
inspector  in  charge  at  Cincinnati  during  the  latter  part  of  1898,  found  one 
per  cent,  of  the  hogs  killed  in  the  abattoir  affected  with  this  parasite.  The 
hogs  were  in  good  condition  and  only  a few  cysts  were  found  in  each 
lung.  The  muscle  flukes  in  American  swine  are  probably  young  specis- 
mens  of  the  lung  fluke. 

Its  complete  life  history  has  not  yet  been  determined,  but  according 
to  present  knowledge  the  worm  does  not  develop  until  after  it  leaves  the 
host  in  the  sputum.  Some  observers  have  succeeded  in  raising  the  em- 
bryonic stage,  but  beyond  this  nothing  positive  has  been  demonstrated. 
This  worm  has  been  found  in  man,  cat,  dog,  tiger  and  hog. 

PORK  MEASLES. 

Measles  of  the  pig  is  a parasitic  disease  caused  by  the  Cysticercus 
celluloses,  Rud,  a larval  form  of  the  Taenia  solium,  a tape  worm  some- 
times found  in  man.  The  frequency  of  measles  corresponds  with  that  of 
the  tape  worm,  as  the  pig  becomes  infected  by  eating  human  excrements 
which  contain  segments  of  this  parasite. 

The  bladder  worms  or  cysticerci  are  found  in  the  muscular  tissue, 
especially  in  the  region  of  the  abdomen,  in  the  tongue,  heart,  neck,  shoul- 
ders, pelvis,  flank  and  superior  regions  of  the  legs.  They  may  be  found 
in  other  organs  as  well.  The  adult  cysticerci  represents  a small  vesicle 
about  the  size  of  a pea  or  bean,  of  a dull  white  color  and  provided  with  a 
head  and  neck.  This  is  marked  externally  by  a dark  spot  which  is  bent 
in  toward  the  inside  of  the  vesicle. 

Method  of  Infection. — Man  harbors  the  adult  worm.  Taenia  solium, 
and  hogs  become  infested  with  the  larvae  by  taking  into  the  digestive 
tract  the  segments  of  the  parasite  that  are  passed  out  with  the  faeces. 
These  contain  a large  number  of  eggs  and  on  reaching  the  stomach  are 


193 


freed  from  their  shells  by  the  dissolving  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  The 
embryo  is  then  free,  perforates  the  intestinal  wall,  or  enters  a small 
blood  vessel  and  drifts  along  in  the  blood  stream  until  it  reaches  a suit- 
able place  to  develop.  Nine  days  after  infection  a small  oval  vesicle  forms 
in  the  infested  tissues.  In  twenty  days,  the  bladder  worm  is  about  as 
large  as  the  head  of  a pin,  and  in  sixty  days  it  has  grown  to  about  the 
size  of  a pea.  It  is  then  enclosed  in  connective  tissue  and  has  fully  devel- 
oped, and  at  the  end  of  this  period  a well  formed  neck  can  be  seen. 

Degenerative  changes  take  place  quite  'early.  The  connective  tissue 
capsule  becomes  infiltrated  with  lime  salts,  and  gradually  the  whole  para- 
site* undergoes  a calcareous  degeneration. 

Symptoms. — There  are  no  definite  symptoms.  Some  investigators  have 
described  as  symptoms  of  measles,  a hoarse  voice,  falling  out  of  the  hair, 
depression,  loss  of  appetite,  weakness,  emaciation,  a partial  paralysis, 
diarrhoea  and  oedematous  swellings  in  the  region  of  the  head,  neck  and 
shoulders.  A more  postive  diagnosis  may  be  made  by  examining  the  vis- 
ible mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  especially  in  the  region  of  the 
tongue,  for  the  characteristic  lesions.  When  the  tissues  in  these  parts 
are  affected,  small  pimples  may  be  felt  or  seen  on  the  mucous  membrane. 
Blindness,  rabiform  symptoms,  etc.,  have  been  reported  in  cases  of  gen- 
eral infestion  of  the  tissues,  and  within  a variable  time  exhaustion  and 
death. 

Treatment. — This  is  wholly  preventive.  Pigs  should  be  prevented  from 
ingesting  the  fecal  matter  of  man  by  using  proper  precautions. 

The  importance  of  this  parasite  lies  in  the  danger  of  man  becoming 
infested  with  the  adult  worm.  The  Taenia  soleum  is  an  armed  tape  worm 
and  gives  rise  to  much  more  serious  symptoms  than  the  more  common 
unarmed  form.  The  infection  results  from  the  eating  of  uncooked  pork. 
Man  may  also  become  infested  with  the  cysts.  This  may  occur  in  various 
ways;  as  a result  of  a reverse  peristalis  of  the  intestine  carrying  a gravi(» 
segment  into  the  stomach,  from  a contaminated  water  supply  and  from 
the  hand  becoming  soiled  at  the  time  of  defecation.  In  man  the  bladdei 
worm  may  develop  in  the  eye  or  brain,  and  give  rise  to  very  serious 
symptoms. 

The  preventive  treatment  consists  in  tanking  the  parts  infested 
with  cysts  and  eating  only  well  cooked  pork. 


194 


BLADDER  WORMS. 

The  bladder  worm,  Cysticercus  tenuicoLlis.,  Leuck,  is  another  tape 
worm  larvae  occurring  in  the  body  cavity  of  swine.  It  is  also  found  in 
cattle  and  sheep.  The  adult  tape  worm,  Tcsnia  marginnata,  Batsch,  is 
found  in  dogs  and  wolves.  These  bladder  like  bodies  are  a half  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter  and  are  usually  found  on  the  folds  of  the  omentum. 

Method  of  Infection. — The  eggs  of  the  Taenia  marginata  pass  ,out  with 
the  excrement  of  dogs  and  become  scattered  around  on  the  ground.  In- 
fection takes  place  the  same  as  in  some  of  the  other  parasitic  forms,  the 
egg  containing  the  six  hooked  embryo  entering  the  digestive  tract  along 
with  the  food.  The  embryo  on  reaching  the  stomach  and  intestines  is  lib- 
erated by  the  digestive  juices.  It  then  migrates  from  the  intestines,  either 
by  crawling  or  by  drifting  along  in  the  blood  until  it  reaches  the  liver. 
About  four  days  after  infection,  it  can  be  seen  in  this  organ,  lodged  in  the 
finer  branches  of  the  blood  vessels  which  it  transforms  into  tubes,  and 
having  the  appearance  of  a small  round  kernel.  After  remaining  here 
for  a short  time,  it  leaves  the  liver  and  falls  into  the  body  cavity  and 
usually  encysts  on  the  omentum.  Here  it  remains  until  fully  developed, 
which  requires  several  months.  In  time,  as  is  the  case  with  the  cysticer- 
cus,  it  undergoes  degenerative  changes.  If  the  cyst  is  eaten  by  a dog  the 
scolex  or  head  is  freed  from  the  cyst  by  the  digestive  juices,  and  the 
suckers  and  hooks  attach  themselves  to  the  wall  of  the  intestine  and  de- 
velopment of  the  segments  of  the  tape  worm  begins. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  produced  by  the  bladder  worm  are  not 
noticeable.  No  deaths  have  ever  been  reported  in  hogs  from  infection  by 
this  worm.  When  the  infection  is  heavy,  infiammation  in  the  body  cav- 
ities as  a result  of  the  migrations  of  the  larvae  may  occur,  but  the  symp- 
toms manifested  by  the  animal  are  not  diagnostic.  It  is  hardly  possible 
to  recognize  the  disease  in  the  living  animal,  and  if  it  could,  the  treat- 
ment would  not  differ  from  that  recommended  in  peritonitis  and  pleurisy. 

The  lavrae  of  the  Taenia  marginata  is  not  of  as  much  economic  im- 
portance as  the  larvae  of  the  Taenia  soleum.  It  does  not  cause  as  serious 
a line  of  symptoms  in  its  host  as  the  cysticercus,  and  does  not  infect  man. 


195 


TRICHINOSIS  OF  THE  PIG. 

Trichinosis  is  a disease  caused  by  the  muscles  of  the  body  becoming 
infested  with  a very  small  round  worm,  the  Trichina  spiralis^  Owen.  The 
disease  is  seen  in  man  and  other  mammals.  It  occurs  in  two  forms  in  the 
one  animal;  the  intestinal,  which  represents  the  adult  parasite,  and  the 
muscular,  which  represents  the  larval  stage  of  the  parasite.  Prom  one  to 
three  per  cent,  of  the  pork  examined  contains  trichina. 

Description  and  Life  History. — The  adult  T.  spiralis  is  a very  small 
worm.  The  male  a little  over  one  twenty  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  the  female 
about  three  times  the  length  of  the  male.  The  digestive  tract  can  be  di- 
vided into  a buccal  opening,  oesophagus,  stomach,  intestines,  anus  and 


Trichina  in  the  muscle.  From  Neumann. 


cloacal  slit.  The  genital  apparatus  in  the  male  consists  of  testicular  tube, 
excretory  canal  and  genital  orifice;  in  the  female  of  ovaries,  uterus, 
vagina  and  vulva.  Internal  impregnation  takes  place,  and  the  eggs  de- 
velop in  the  uterus  of  the  female  to  the  number  of  at  least  a thousand  and 
are  born  alive.  These  embryonic  worms  within  a short  time  after  birth 
penetrate  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines  and  migrate  through  the 
tissues  until  they  reach  the  involuntary  muscles.  It  then  enters  the 
muscle  fibre,  coils  itself  up  and  rests.  In  about  two  weeks,  the  cyst  can 
be  seen  and  embryos  become  transformed  into  larvae.  The  tissue  in  the’ 
neighborhood  of  the  embryo,  is  the  seat  of  cellular  infiltration,  and  the 
muscles  in  the  region  may  become  swollen,  and  undergo  more  or  less  de- 
generative changes.  Connective  tissue  forms  in  the  region  of  the  para- 
site and  the  cyst  containing  one  or  more  larvae,  is  spindle  or  lemon 


196 


shaped.  The  larva  is  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The 
formation  of  the  embryos  begin  about  the  seventh  day  after  the  cysts 
are  taken  into  the"  digestive  tract.  The  emigrating  period  is  prolonged  lo 
the  second  or  third  week,  and  the  encysting  period  from  the  fourth  week 
to  the  third  month.  After  the  third  month  degenerative  changes  begin 
in  the  cyst  and  finally  involve  the  larvae  as  well,  but  these  changes  (cal- 
careous degeneration)  may  take  place  very  slowly  and  not  occur  for  a 
year  or  more.  When  the  cyst  does  become  calcified,  danger  to  the  infested" 
individual  is  over.  One  ounce  of  the  fiesh  of  an  infested  pig  may  con- 
tain eighty  five  thousand  encysted  worms. 

Method  of  Infection. — Infection  occurs  from  eating  flesh  containing  the 
live  larvae  of  the  T.  sprialis.  The  source  of  the  infection  in  swine  is 
from  eating  rats.  According  to  the  investigations  made  by  Stiles,  rats 
' around  the  country  slaughter  houses  are  quite  generally  infested  with 
trichina,  as  it  is  rare  to  find  the  offal  in  country  disposed  of  in  the  proper 
way,  and  rats  are  abundant  around  such  places.  Hogs  frequently  have 
the  same  opportunity  as  the  rats  to  feed  on  offal  and  under  such  condi- 
tions infection  may  occur. 

Symptoms. — These  have  been  observed  in  experimental  animals  and  in 
man.  When  only  a few  embryos  migrate  through  the  tissues,  but  little 
body  disturbance  is  noted.  The  disease  is  characterized  by  two  groups 
of  symptoms;  one  affecting  the  intestinal  canal,  the  other  the  muscles. 

Prom  the  beginning  of  the  first  to  the  end  of  the  second  week  afte^ 
infection,  gastro  intestinal  disturbances  are  noticed'  but  the  symptoms  are 
not  constant.  The  appetite  is  lost,  the  hog  is  depressed,  abdomen  tense 
and  the  animal  may  vomit.  Colicy  pains  accompanied  by  a diarrhoea  may 
occur.  When  the  parasites  are  present  in  large  numbers,  it  may  lead  to 
a rapid  death,  but  if  only  a few  are  present  the  sympotms  of  disease  may 
end  in  this  stage. 

The  muscular  symptoms  are  due  to  the  inflammation  caused  by  the 
migration  of  the  parasites.  They  are  observed  from  the  second  to  the 
third  weeks.  The  pig  may  rub  and  scratch  itself,  symptoms  resembling 
rheumatism  occur,  and  the  animal  is  stiff,  sometimes  paralyzed.  Respira- 
tions are  difficult,  it  can  hardly  masticate  and  swallow  its  food,  and  the 
voice  is  much  changed.  Oedematous  tumifactions  may  appear  in  various 


197 


regions  and  the  pig  loses  flesh  very  /rapidly.  Pigs  generally  recover 
in  about  five  or  six  weeks. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  preventive.  The  offal  around  slaughter 
houses  should  be  disposed  of  in  the  proper  way.  Hogs  should  not  be 
allowed  to  eat  this  refuse  and  if  kept  around  abattoirs  at  all,  should  be 
fed  grain.  If  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  marked  and  a correct 
diagnosis  can  be  made,  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  destroy  the  animal. 
As  this  disease  is  communicable  to  man  and  is  often  followed  by  fatal 
results,  only  well  cooked  dr  well  cured  pork  should  be  used  as  food.  It  is 
impossible  for  the  parasite  to  survive  the  proper  cooking  or  curing  of  the 
meat. 


IMMUNITY. 

The  subject  of  immunity  and  immunization  is  of  so  much  interest  to 
swine  breeders  that  the  addition  of  a special  article  setting  forth  the 
basic  principles  seems  to  be  demanded. 

Immunity  is  the  power  of  resistance  which  every  form  of  life  posses 
against  injury  or  destruction  by  some  other  form.  The  term  is  used  al- 
most wholly  in  the  sense  of  expressing  a resistance  of  an  individual  to 
disease.  It  is  an  inherent  quality  in  all  animal  or  plant  life.  It  varies 
in  the  different  species  toward  the  same  cause  and  in  individuals  of  the 
same  species  toward  different  causes.  The  term  is  no  longer  applied  to 
the  resistance  of  the  individul  to  some  organism,  but  is  made  to  include 
the  products  or  toxines  produced  by  the  organism.  Immunization  is  the 
process  by  which  the  resistance  may  be  increased  towards  any  particular 
form  of  organism. 

The  difference  in  immunity  in  the  different  species  towards  the  same 
cause  is  easily  illustrated  by  a comparison  of  the  diseasess  occuring  in 
the  human  subject  and  in  the  lower  animals.  In  the  human,  we  have 
cholera,  typhoid,  and  yellow  fever,  that  are  never  found  in  other  species. 
The  lower  animals  therefore  possess  a very  high  degree  of  immunity  to- 
ward these  diseases.  In  swine,  we  have  swine  plague  that  never  occurs  in 
the  human.  In  cattle,  we  have  southern  cattle  fever  that  does  not  effect 
any  other  species.  We  have  other  diseases  as  tuberculosis  and  glanders 
that  may  effect  the  human  and  some  of  the  lower  forms.  There  are  some 


198 


diseases  of  the  human  that  have  not  been  successfully  inoculated  into 
the  lower  animals  and  likewise  diseases  of  one  specie  that  do  not  occur  in 
another.  An  individual  or  a specie  may  have  a very  strong  natural  im- 
munity against  a given  form,  but  by  exposure  under  adverse  conditions 
or  by  inoculation,  my  become  affected. 

Immunity  is  therefore  only  a relative  term  and  is  not  absolute.  It  is 
said  to  be  strong  or  weak  as  measured  by  the  degree  of  resistance  under 
ordinary  conditions. 

Age  is  an  important  factor  in  natural  immunity.  The  young  as  a rule 
offer  a lesser  degree  of  resistance  to  infectious  diseases  than  do  the  old, 
while  the  latter  show  a greater  susceptibility  to  chronic  affections.  This 
can  probably  be  best  illustrated  from  examples  in  the  human  subject. 
Children  are  prone  to  have  measles,  scarlet  fever,  chicken  pox,  “mumps,” 
and  these  are  commonly  known  as  children’s  diseases.  A person  may  con- 
tract one  of  these  diseases  when  they  have  arrived  at  maturity  but  the 
chances  of  doing  so  are  very  greatly  reduced.  This  is  often  a 'cribed 
to  the  fact  that  most  persons  have  these  troubles  when  young  and  there- 
fore are  protected  against  a second  attack.  The  fact  remains,  however, 
that  among  persons  who  have  escaped  these  diseases  while  young,  the 
power  to  resist  an  attack  is  greater  than  in  the  average  child.  To  draw 

a like  illustration  from  the  lower  animals,  we  may  cite  the  fact  that 

sore  mouth  and  joint  diseases  occur  in  very  young  pigs,  cholera  principally 
among  the  young,  and  pigs  that  are  half  grown,  while  swine  plague  at- 
tacks half  grown  and  older  animals.  It  is  not  meant  to  convey  the  impres- 
sion that  these  diseases  may  not  occur  at  any  age  but  the  large  prepon- 
derance of  all  cases  do  occur  at  the  time  indicated,  and  that  there  is  a 
difference  in  resistive  power  at  different  ages  independent  of  the  effect  of 
previous  attacks. 

Effect  of  previous  attacks. — Immunity  results  from  an  attack  of  some 
diseases.  We  can  divide  diseases  into  two  classes  upon  this  basis,  those 
which  do  not  tend  to  occur  after  one  attack  and  those  in  which  the  ten- 
dency is  but  little  or  not  at  all  diminished.  In  the  diseases  of  the  first 

class  there  are  changes  which  take  place  in  the  body  that  protect  it  for  a 
greater  or  less  length  of  time,  and  in  some,  as  long  as  the  subject  lives. 
In  the  second  class  these  changes  are  so  slight  that  they  have  only  a 
temporary  if  any  effect.  The  immunity  thus  acquired  is  not  necessarily  due 


i9y 


to  changes  caused  by  the  presence  ot  the  disease  germs  but  may  be  due 
to  the  products  which  they  produce.  The  products  of  the  disease  germs 
are  called  toxines.  That  the  immunity  which  results  from  an  attack  of 
some  diseases  is  due  to  these  poisons  and  not  to  the  presence  of  the  germs 
can  be  easily  demonstrated.  The  germs  may  be  grown  in  a suitable 
medium,  as  bouillon,  and  after  they  have  grown  some  time  the  material 
may  be  filtered  and  heated  so  there  will  be  no  living  germs  present.  This 
material  will  contain  the  toxine  or  poison  produced  by  the  germ,  and  if 
injected  into  the  body  of  a suceptable  patient,  first  in  small,  and  then 
gradually  increasing  doses  it  will  be  found  that  the  patient  will  acquire 
immunity  the  same  as  that  following  an  attack  in  the  usual  way.  In  this 
instance  there  has  been  no  disease  germs  and  yet  immunity  results.  The 
body  has  formed  the  same  protective  products  to  neutralize  the  poison 
introduced  artificially  as  would  have  occurred  if  they  had  resulted  from 
the  growth  of  the  germs  in  the  body.  In  the  second  class  of  diseases  there 
are  no  protective  products  formed,  or  if  there  are,  they  are  too  weak  to 
be  effective. 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  different  diseases  attack  the  body 
in  different  ways  and  that  the  protective  powers  also  differ.  Some  produce 
their  effect  through  a poison  or  toxine  as  already  cited,  and  the  resistance 
comes  from  the  antitoxine  formed.  The  two  best  known  and  most  thor- 
oughly studied  diseases  of  this  type  are  diphtheria,  and  tetanus  or  lock- 
jaw. Both  the  toxine  and  antitoxine  are  so  well  known  that  the  latter  is 
extensively  used  in  the  protection  and  cure,  especially  for  diphtheria. 
Some  diseases  affect  the  body  through  the  enormous  multiplication  of  the 
germs.  In  this  type  there  may  be  a proauct  formed  which  tends  to  arrest 
this  multiplication,  or  there  may  be  special  destructive  activity  on  the 
part  of  certain  cells,  especially  the  white  blood  corpuscels.  The  product 
which  tends  to  prevent  multiplication  is  known  as  a bacteriolysin.  Bac- 
teriolytic products  are  not  so  well  known  as  antitoxines  and  not  so  suc- 
cessful in  use.  That  most  employed  in  medicine  is  antistreptococcus 
serum  in  the  treatment  of  blood  poisoning. 

The  immunity  gained  as  the  result  of  an  attack  of  a disease,  whether 
it  be  antitoxic,  bacteryolitic  or  both,  is  a natural  acquired  immunity. 

In  the  case  of  hog  cholera  we  do  know  that  a certain  amount  of  im- 
munity is  acquired.  A brood  sow  that  has  successfully  withstood  an  at- 


200 


Lack  of  disease  has  an  enhanced  value  because  of  the  fact.  The  immunity 
which  she  has  acquired  is  not  transmitted  to  her  offspring.  It  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly desirable  quality  to  be  obtained  in  all,  occurs  in  nature  in  so  few, 
and  at  such  great  price  that  every  known  artificial  method  has  been  em- 
ployed to  induce  it.  These  will  now  be  considered  in  some  detail. 

Vaccination. — Since  immunity  results  from  an  attack  of  some  diseases 
and  the  immunity  gained  from  a mild  attack  is  protective  the  same  as  foi 
a severe  attack,  attempts  have  been  made  to  induce  a mild  form  for  pro- 
tection. This  was  first  done  in  connection  with  small-pox.  The  patient 
was  dieted  and  put  in  as  healthy  condition  as  possible  and  then  virus 
was  taken  directly  from  an  afflicted  patient,  care  being  exercised  to  select 
one  suffering  from  a mild  form  of  disease.  This  had  the  .desired  result 
m many  cases  but  often  caused  death.  Virus  taken  from  a mild  case  might 
sudaeniy  acquire  increased  virulence  with  fatal  results.  Later,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  patients  vaccinated  with  cow-pox  in  a natural  way  in  hand- 
ling cattle  were  immune  to  smallpox,  or  that  those  suffering  from  the 
cow-pox  had  it  in  a very  mild  form  compared  with  those  vaccinated  with 
smaii-pox.  This  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  human  virus  and  the 
substitution  of  the  bovine  material  or  cow-pox.  Sepsis  and  other  serious 
complications  often  resulted  at  first  but  the  method  of  preparing  the 
virus,  preserving,  and  using  it,  have  been  so  greatly  improved  that  it  is 
now  used  with  a feeling  of  safety.  We  now  know  that  the  cow-pox  and 
small-pox  are  the  same  diseases,  but  the  passage  of  the  disease  through  the 
cow  reduces  its  virulence  for  the  human  subject.  Furthermore  we  know 
the  immunity  gained  by  the  bovine  virus  is  not  so  strong  or  so  enduring 
as  that  from  the  human.  The  operation  of  vaccination  consists  of  abrad- 
ing or  scratching  the  surface  of  the  skin  and  rubbing  in  the  virus.  Vac- 
cination has  been  tried  for  the  prevention  of  hog-cholera  and  swine 
plague  but  without  the  degree  of  success  that  is  essential  in  practice. 
The  virus  taken  from  infected  hogs  is  not  so  satisfactory,  and  there  is  no 
other  animal  known  to  have  the  disease  so  that  it  may  be  modified  by 
passage  through  a different  body.  Attempts  to  modify  the  virus  by  ar- 
tificial means  has  also  been  a failure. 

Innoculation.— Immunity  may  also  be  acquired  by  artificial  means  by 
a method  popularly  known  as  innoculation.  In  this  method  the  virulence 
of  the  germs  are  reduced  by  artificial  means.  It  has  its  best  application 


201 


in  the  prevention  of  blackleg.  The  tissues  of  an  animal  having  died  of 
blackleg  are  heated  to  such  a degree  as  to  nearly  destroy  all  germs.  A 
bit  of  tissue  is  then  rubbed  up  with  some  sterile  water,  filtered  and  in- 
jected into  a susceptable  animal.  The  innoculation  has  the  effect  of  pro- 
ducing a mild  form  of  the  disease  which  will  suffice  to  protect  against  a 
natural  infection.  In  localities  where  the  danger  is  great,  an  innoculation 
is  first  made  with  material  that  has  been  heated  to  a high  degree,  and 
alter  ten  days  again  innoculated  with  material  that  has  been  heated 
to  a lesser  degree,  but  which  if  used  in  the  first  case  would  cause  serious 
illness  and  possibly  death  in  many  cases.  The  first  inoculation  pro- 
duces a slight  immunity  and  the  second  greatly  increases  it. 

Heating  is  not  the  only  method  of  decreasing  or  attenuating  the  vir- 
ulence of  germs.  It  may  also  be  accomplished  by  growing  them  in  dif- 
ferent media,  and  at  different  temperatures  for  different  periods  of  time, 
and  by  chemicals.  All  of  these  methods  have  been  employed  in  securing 
a virus  tor  protecting  against  hog  chplera,  and  like  vaccination,  without 
success  except  in  a comparatively  limited  number  of  cases.  Both  vac- 
cmatiOn  and  innoculation  are  objectionable  in  that  living  germs  are  em- 
Pio^ed  and  in  the  event  mild  cases  are  induced  the  germs  will  be  passed 
from  the  body,  and  may  become  the  center  of  infection  for  an  epidemic 
in  a herd  or  neighborhood. 

Inoculation  differs  from  vaccination  in  that  the  material  is  placed 
directly  into  the  tissue  of  the  body  with  a hypodermic  syringe  and  not  by 
scratching  the  surface. 

Inoculation  is  also  made  by  taking  blood  from  an  animal  suffering 
with  the  disease  and  injecting  it  into  a susceptible  animal.  This  is  the 
method  used  in  immunizing  against  southern  cattle  fever.  The  dose  is 
small.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  the  sterile  serum  from  affected 
animals  but  without  success.  In  the  case  of  southern  fever  the  hypo- 
dermic syringe  takes  the  place  of  the  tick,  which  does  the  same  thing 
under  natural  conditions.  By  the  artificial  method  the  size  of  the  dose 
is  regulated.  The  same  method  has  been  tried  with  hog  cholera. 

l?'eeding.— Immunity  may  also  be  acquired  by  feeding  small  quantities 
of  germs  that  have  had  their  virulence  reduced.  The  quantity  and  viru- 
lence are  both  gradually  increased  until  the  animal  can  successfully 
withstand  what  would  ordinarily  produce  a serious  or  fatal  illness.  This 


method  has  been  lound  successful  in  some  experimental  work  and  is  used 
by  a few  breeders  with  apparent  success.  This  is  in  reality  at  the  basis 
of  a method -that  has  received  a great  deal  of  attention  in  the  past  few 
years.  It  was  accomplished  in  a crude  way  by  feeding  swine  on  pieces 
of  the  carcass  of  one  that  had  died  of  cholera.  The  quantity  was  gradu- 
ally increased  and  the  period  between  the  feedings  shortened.  The  ani- 
mals selected  for  the  purpose  were  generally  old  ones  whose  resistance 
were  already  strong.  Its  use  was  especially  rcommended  for  breeding  sows 
near  the  time  of  farrowing,  as  it  was  believed  that  immunity  would  result 
in  utero.  The  process  was  continued  after  farrowing  to  intensify  the  im- 
munity through  the  effect  on  the  mother’s  milk.  The  natural  product  not 
being  always  available  and  necessarily  of  variable  character,  cultures  of 
the  germs  were  soon  substituted.  As  the  practical  application  of  this 
method  is  conducted  on  a commercial  or  trade  basis,  little  is  known  of  the 
uniformity  of  the  virulence  of  the  germs.  It  is  even  more  objectionable 
than  vaccination  or  inoculation  in  that  there  is  sure  to  be  infection  of  the 
premises,  and  the  possibility  of  making  a center  for  an  epidemic.  The 
principle  involved  in  this  method  is  not  a new  one,  it  is  only  the  appli- 
cation in  a commercial  way  and  the  extensive  advertising  that  has  at- 
tracted attention. 

Dead  Cultures. — It  has  been  found  in  the  course  of  many  experiments 
with  disease  germs  that  immunity  may  be  acquired  in  some  cases  after 
the  injection  of  dead  germs.  For  this  purpose,  the  germs  are  usually  grown 
upon  some  solid  media  like  agar  agar,  and  when  they  have- made  a good 
growth,  they  are  scraped  off,  dried  and  killed  at  as  low  temperature 
as  possible.  The  germs  are  then  macerated  in  sterile  water  and  injected 
as  in  inoculation.  This  has  been  tried  in  almost  every  conceivable 
way,  using  all  known,  and  I might  say,  almost  all  unknown  media  and  at 
different  temperatures.  The  material  prepared  after  this  manner  is  fre- 
quently called  antitoxin  and  used  for  immunizing  purposes.  It  is  not  a 
true  antitoxin  and  does  not  cure  nor  prevent  in  the  same  way  as  anti- 
toxin. There  is  probably  some  merit  in  the  method  the  same  as  may  be 
said  for  all.  It  has  not  been  perfected  to  such  a degree  that  it  can  be 
recommended. 

In  all  the  foregoing  methods  the  object  has  been  to  develop  in  the 
body  a substance  or  substances,  that  will  act  as  a protective  agent  for  a 


20« 


considerable  period  of  time.  The  object  sought  has  been  to  produce  such 
a mild  form  of  the  disease  that  a second  attack  will  not  occur  even  though 
an  epidemic  be  present  in  the  community.  The  immunity  that  would 
thus  be  acquired  would  be  active.  There  still  remains  two  other  methods 
of  securing  immunity. 

Antitoxin. — In  some  diseases,  the  marked  effects  upon  the  body  are 
due  to  the  poison  which  the  germs  produce  and  not  to  the  number  of 
germs  present.  This  is  notably  true  of  diphtheria  and  tetanus.  After 
both  of  these  diseases,  we  find  that  the  blood  of  the  patient  contains  a 
substance  known  as  antitoxin  and  has  the  power  of  neutralizing  the 
toxine  produced  by  the  bacteria.  This  substance  is  so  strong  that  blood 
may  be  taken  from  such  a patient,  and  if  the  serum  be  injected  into  the 
body  of  a patient  exposed  to  the  disease,  or  found  to  be  diseased,  it  will 
prevent  or  greatly  lessen  the  severity  of  the  attack.  We  take  advantage 
of  this  fact,  and  use  the  antitoxin  in  a very  large  percentage  of  cases 
with  better  results  than  any  other  known  treatment.  In  making  anti- 
toxin for  the  treaiment  of  diphtheria,  the  horse  is  selected  for  providing 
the  serum.  A healthy  animal  is  inoculated  with  a small  dose  of  Jthe 
toxine  and  as  soon  as  it  makes  a recovery,  a little  larger  dose  is  given. 
This  is  repeated  at  she.  c intervals  for  a period  of  from  six  to  eight 
weeks.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  animal  will  be  able  to  stand  a dose 
a hundred  or  more  times  greater  than  would  have  been  tolerated  at  the 
first  inoculation.  The  blood  of  such  an  animal  will  possess  an  enormous 
mimunizing  power.  When  used  upon  the  patient  however,  it  simply  adds 
that  property  to  the  blood  and  does  not  cause  its  development  in  the 
body.  The  immunity  conferred  only  lasts  for  a short  time,  from  four  to 
eight  weeks,  or  long  enough  to  pass  over  a period  of  Infection.  A simi- 
lar line  of  work  has  been  done  in  connection  with  hog  cholera  and  swine 
plague.  The  results  have  been  interesting  from  a scientific  standpoint 
rather  than  the  practical.  The  cost  in  developing  the  serum,  the  care 
needed  in  its  application,  and  the  short  period  of  immunity  conferred  have 
all  been  against  it  It  was  used  in  the  government  experiments,  but  only 
a few  firms  ventured  into  the  production  upon  a commercial  scale,  and 
none  are  In  operation  as  far  as  known  to  the  writer. 

Toxine  Method.— In  this  method  the  germs  of  the  disease  are  grown  in 
a suitable  media  like  beef  bouillon,  and  when  they  have  produced  about 


204 


all  the  poison  they  will,  they  are  then  filtered  off  and  the  poison  is  in- 
jected, first  in  a small  and  then  in  a large  dose  thus  stimulating  the  body 
to  produce  its  own  antitoxin.  This  is  the  method  used  in  developing  a 
strong  antitoxin  in  the  horse’s  blood  aginst  diphtheria,  but  it  is  not 
practical  in  its  application  to  the  treatment  of  millions  of  hogs  on  the 
farm. 

Antibactericidal  sera. — A bacteriolytic  serum  is  used  in  the  treatment 
of  septicaema  or  blood  poisoning.  This  serum  has  the  effect  of  greatly  in- 
creasing the  destructive  powers  of  the  normal  serum  of  the  blood.  This 
acts  differently  from  the  antitoxin.  Instead  of  being  \ direct,  its  effects 
are  indirect.  Theoretically  it  would  seem  that  such  a serum  would  be  in- 
dicated rather  than  an  antitoxine.  Experimentally  however,  the  proper 
or  effective  serum  has  not  been  found. 

We  are  familiar  with  the  results  obtained  by  several  veterinarians 
with  the  use  of  the  different  antitoxines  upon  the  market,  and  they  have 
not  been  of  such  encouraging  character  as  to  warrant  their  general  use. 
There  are  firms  that  use  purely  chemically  compounded  preparations  un- 
der, the  name  of  antitoxine,  but  as  they  are  misnomers  and  intended  to 
mislead.  They  have  no  place  in  this  discussion. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  101.  Vol.  XII. 
February,  1905. 


Alfalfa  in  Indiana. 


PuDllsbeil  Dy  llie  Hailon: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA, 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


William  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Addison  C.  Harris,  _ - - - Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Sylvlstlr  Johnson,  _ _ _ _ Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Beam,  _ _ _ _ _ Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  _ _ _ LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  _ - - _ Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - ^ Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  W^ayne,  Allen  Co 

Charles  Major,  _ _ _ _ Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  vS.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  AkTHUR,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arville  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  _ - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Allred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - A.ssociate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Associate  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  -----  - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


ALFALFA  IN  INDIANA 


By  a.  T.  Wiancko  and  M.  L.  Fisher. 


INTRODUCTION. 

During  the  last  few  years  a widespread  and  increasing  interest 
in  alfalfa  culture  has  sprung  up  in  Indiana.  Hundreds  of  inquiries 
have  come  to  this  station,  showing  that  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the 
state  are  seriously  thinking  of  trying  the  crop.  The  questions 
asked  are  generally  quite  comprehensive  and  concern  its  general 
characteristics,  its  adaptation  to  certain  local  conditions,  its  feeding 
value,  methods  of  seeding,  inoculation,  later  treatment,  etc. 

To  meet  this  demand  for  knowledge  about  alfalfa  an  investi- 
gation was  begun  in  the  spring  of  -1903  with  a view  to  ascertaining 
the  suitability  of  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  Indiana  for  the 
profitable  production  of  the  crop.  With  the  cooperation  of  students 
of  the  School  of  Agriculture  and  other  interested  farmers  a number 
of  experimental  plots  were  established  in  every  section  of  the  state 
under  widely  differing  conditions.  In  each  case  different  methods 
of  seeding,  with  and  without  inoculation,  were  tried  and  much  other 
valuable  information  about  its  production  in  the  state  has  been  col- 
lected. The  results  of  these  investigations  prove  beyond  a reason- 
able doubt  that  alfalfa  deserves  a place  in  Indiana  agriculture. 

The  object  of  this  bulletin  is  to  make  known  to  our  farmers 
what  has  been  learned  about  the  culture  of  the  crop  in  the  state, 
and  to  assist  those  who  wish  to  use  it. 

HISTORY. 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  cultivated  forage  plants.  It  was 
used  by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans  and  other  nations  of  the 
East  long  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  It  is  a native 
of  the  southern  and  western  portions  of  Asia,  tliriving  particularly 
well  in  the  higher  and  drier  regions.  It  was  early  introduced  into 


2o8 


Spain  and  the  Spaniards  carried  it  into  South  America  and  Mexico. 
Its  introduction  into  the  United  States  dates  as  far  back  as  1820, 
when  it  was  tried  in  New  York  state.  It  was  brought  from  Chili 
to  California  about  fifty  years  ago  and  now  flourishes  throughout 
the  arid  and  semi-arid  west  as  perhaps  in  no  other  region  of  the 
world.  On  account  ofjts  hardy,  drought-resistant  qualities  it  is 
particularly  well  adapted  to  high,  dry  regions.  From  California  it 
rapidly  spread  eastward  and  is  now  grown  in  almost  every  state 
and  territory  in  the  Union.  Its  high  feeding  value,  great  yielding 
power  and  adaptation  to  widely  varying  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
have  made  it  deservedly  popular  wherever  it  has  been  grown. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAD  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Alfalfa  {Medicago  sativa)  is  a member  of  the  family  botan- 
ically  known  as  the  Leguminosae,  to  which  also  belong  the  clovers, 
peas,  beans,  vetches  and  other  plants  with  pea-like  blossoms  and 
podded  fruits.  It  is  an  upright,  branching,  smooth,  perennial  plant, 
growing  from  one  to  three  feet  in  height.  Its  stems  are  somewhat 
coarser  in  appearance  than  those  of  red  clover.  The  young  plant 
sends  up  a single  main  stem.  When  this  is  cut  off  and  the  plant 
grows  older,  more  and  more  stems  shoot  up  frorn  near  the  ground. 
In  old  plants  that  have  been  cut  off  many  times  the  stems  become 
very  numerous,  sometimes  as  many  as  a hundred  springing  from 
a single  crown.  The  leaves  are  three  parted,  somewhat  longer  and 
much  narrower  than  those  of  red  clover  and  are  somewhat  toothed 
around  the  apex.  They  are  much  more  numerous  than  on  red  clover 
and  are  very  nutritious.  The  whole  plant  has  a characteristic  deep 
green  color  when  in  a healthy  condition,  especially  in  a dry  season. 

The  small  pea-like  flowers  are  purplish  to  pinkish' in  color  and 
are  borne  in  loose  clusters  or  racemes  along  the  smaller  stems  and 
branches.  The  ripe  seed-pods  are  spirally  twisted,  forming  two  or 
three  complete  curves,  and  each  pod  contains  several  seeds.  The 
seeds  are  kidney  shaped,  yellowish  brown  in  color,  and  about  a half 
larger  than  red  clover  seeds. 

Like  all  members  of  the  clover  family,  alfalfa  has  a strong  tap 
root  which  it  sends  deeply  into  the  soil.  These  roots  sometimes  ex- 
ceed an  inch  in  diameter,  and  in  open  soils  often  extend  downwards 


209 


to  a depth  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet,  and  much  treater  depths  have 
been  recorded.  The  great  power  of  alfalfa  roots  to  penetrate  hard 
soils  is  well  illustrated  on  the  experimental  farm  here  at  LaFayette, 
where  roots  have  been  dug  up  which  penetrated  through  a foot  and 
a half  of  hardpan,  composed  of  fine  silt  and  gravel,  which  could 
hardly  be  broken  up  with  a pick.  As  the  root  extends  downwards, 
numerous  fine,  lateral  roots  are  produced,  completely  filling  the 
soil  and  extending  the  feeding  area  to  immense  proportions.  This 
enormous  development  of  roots,  and  the  great  depth  to  which  they 
penetrate,  enables  the  plant  to  gather  food  and  moisture  from  depths 
not  reached  by  ordinary  plants.  Much  mineral  food  is  thus  brought 
to  the  surface  and  the  roots,  when  they  decay,  leave  the  soil  full  of 
small,  tube-like  channels  which  facilitate  drainage  and  the  aeration 
of  the  soil,  a benefit  which  may  be  very  considerable  in  close  tex- 
tured soils. 

Alfalfa,  like  the  clovers,  has  the  power  of  assimilating  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  through  the  agency  of  bacteria  which 
develop  numerous  small  nodules,  or  tubercles  on  its  roots.  These 
nodules  contain  millions  of  bacteria  which  live  on  the  juices  of  the 
root  and  in  the  process  of  their  development  supply  the  plant  with 
available  forms  of  nitrogen  which  they  have  the  power  to  form 
from  the  practically  unlimited  supply  in  the  air.  This  gives  the  plant 
a very  important  additional  value  as  a farm  crop,  since  it  enriches 
the  soil  with  large  quantities  of  available  nitrogen  for  the  use  of 
succeeding  crops.  Thus,  where  alfalfa  is  grown  it  will  be  necessary 
to  supply  the  soil  with  only  mineral  plant  food ; the  alfalfa  and  its 
bacteria  will  look  after  and  increase  the  nitrogen  supply. 

Alfalfa,  by  reason  of  the  large  crops  produced,  draws  heavily 
upon  the  mineral  plant  food  in  the  soil,  using  large  quantities  of 
potash,  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  true  that  by  means  of  its 
deep  roots  it  obtains  food  from  depths  not  reached  by  other  crops, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  humid  regions  the  subsoils  often 
contain  comparatively  little  available  food  and  tliat,  therefore,  even 
so  deep  rooted  a crop  as  alfalfa  may  not  be  able  indefinitely  to  se- 
cure all  the  mineral  plant  food  necessary  for  its  best  development. 
As  a matter  of  fact  it  will  generally  respond  well  to  liberal  applica- 
tions of  mineral  fertilizers,  and  where  long  grown  it  will  often  be 


210 


necessary  to  supply  it  with  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  lime.  Ex- 
cept on  limestone  soils,  a moderate  application  of  air-slaked  lime  at 
the  time  the  seed-bed  is  being  prepared,  will  generally  be  very  bene- 
ficial. 


FEEDING  VALUE  OE  ALFALFA. 

As  a food  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock  alfalfa  is  the  king  of  forage 
crops.  It  is  especially  rich  in  protein,  or  flesh  forming  material,  and 
is  well  adapted  for  use  in  a ration  with  corn  which  is  relatively  low  in 
protein  content.  It  makes  excellent  hay  and  is  more  digestible  than 
most  forms  of  rough  feed.  As  a pasture  and  soiling  crop  it  has  few, 
if  ciny,  equals  and  one  of  the  qualities  which  recommend  it  most 
highly  is  its  rapid  growth.  For  soiling  purposes  it  can  be  cut  four 
or  five  times  in  a season  and  for  hay  it  will  usually  yield  three  good 
crops  in  Indiana,  and  sometimes  four.  As  a pasture  for  hogs  it 
is  unexcelled.  It  helps  to  keep  the  animals  in  a healthy  condition. 
Hogs  running  on  good  alfalfa  pastue  are  much  less  liable  to  cholera 
and  other  germ  diseases.  It  also  makes  excellent  pasture  for  cattle, 
sheep  and  horses.  In  pasturing  ruminating  animals  on  alfalfa  it  is, 
of  course,  necessary  to  take  the  same  precautions  to  prevent  bloating 
as  are  necessary  when  pasturing  clover. 


Table  Showing  Total  Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Nutrients 
IN  100  Pounds  of  Alfalfa,  Red  Clover,  Timothy, 

Wheat  Bran  and  Corn.* 


Feeds 

1 Total  Dr}'- 
1 Matter 

Digestible 

Protein 

Digestible  | 
CarTiydrates  | 

Digestible 

Fat 

Alfalfa  

..|  91.6 

11.0 

39.6 

1.2 

Red  Clover 

••1  84.7 

6.8 

35.8 

1-7 

Timothy  

,.|  86.8 

2.8 

43-4 

1.4 

Wheat  Bran  . . . . 

••1  87-7 

12.3 

37*1 

2.6 

Corn  (grain)  . . . 

89.4 

7.8 

66.7 

4.3 

^Compiled  from  Henry’s  ‘Teeds  and  Feeding.” 


SUMMARY  OF  results  OF  EXPERIMENTS. 

In  the  spring  of  1903  twenty-three  experimental  plots  were  es- 
tablished in  as  many  different  counties  of  the  state.  The  soil  ranged 
from  heavy  clay  to  light  sandy  loam.  In  each  case  the  alfalfa  was 


2II 


sown  with  and  without  a nurse  crop.  The  nurse  crops  consisted  of 
light  seedings  of  oats  or  barley.  Each  plot  occupied  one  quarter  of  an 
acre  and  all  were  inoculated  with  soil  from  old  alfalfa  fields  which 
contained  the  alfalfa  bacteria.  The  soil  was  applied  broadcast  at  the 
rate  of  lOO  pounds  of  dry  soil  per  acre.  The  alfalfa  seed  was  sown 
at  the  rate  of  20  pounds  per  acre.  The  seeding  was  done  at  dif- 
ferent times,  the  dates  ranging  from  April  10  to  June  15.  Of  18 
satisfactory  reports  secured  in  the  following  autumn,  ii  showed 
good  condition,  6 fair  and  i rather  poor  condition.  Seven  reported 
best  stand  without  a nurse  crop,  four  with  a nurse  crop  and  six  re- 
ported no  difference.  Of  those  reporting  fair  condition,  five  reported 
damage  done  by  dry  weather  shortly  after  the  crop  came  up.  Of 
those  reporting  good  condition,  seven  reported  nodules  on  the  roots, 
one  none,  and  three  did  not  examine  the  roots.  Of  the  second  group, 
four  reported  some  nodules,  two  found  no  nodules  and  one  was 
doubtful.  The  one  reporting  poor  condition  found  no  nodules  on  the 
roots. 

In  the  spring  of  1904  nine  additional  plots  were  established  in 
other  sections.  The  general  plan  of  the  experiments  was  the  same 
as  in  1903,  except  that  only  one-half  of  each  plot  was  inoculated, 
and  in  such  a way  that  each  plot  was  virtually  divided  into  quarters, 
one  having  alfalfa,  nurse  crop  and  bacteria,  another  alfalfa  and 
nurse  crop,  another  alfalfa  and  bacteria  and  the  fourth  only  alfalfa. 
The  object  of  this  plan  was  to  determine  not  only  the  advisability 
of  using  a nurse  crop  but  also  the  necessity  of  inoculation. 


SUMMARY  AUI^AUI^A  EXPERIMENTS. 


212 


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213 


The  results  of  the  experiments  as  a whole  indicate  that  good 
stands  of  alfalfa  may  be  secured  on  almost  any  of  the  soils  of  the 
state,  though  the  more  open  soils  seem  to  be  preferable.  They  also 
indicate  that  inoculation  of  the  soil  is  desirable  and,  in  most  cases, 
necessary.  As  to  the  best  time  to  sow  alfalfa,  the  experiments  are 
inconclusive  unless  they  be  taken  to  indicate  that  a good  stand  can 
be  secured  at  almost  any  time  from  early  April  to  June.  The  ex- 
periments also  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  still  room  for  argument 
as  to  whether  or  not  a nurse-crop  should  be  used,  though  on  the 
whole  the  chances  seem  in  favor  of  sowing  the  alfalfa  alone. 

SUMMARY  OR  OTHER  REPORTS. 

In  addition  to  the  results  of  the  experiments  under  the  direction 
of  the  station,  a number  of  valuable  reports  from  farmers  growing 
alfalfa  in  various  parts  of  the  state  were  secured.  Report  blanks 
with  numerous  questions  were  sent  out  to  all  growers  of  the  crop 
in  the  state  who  could  be  located  and  38  complete  reports  were  re- 
ceived. Of  these,  32  reported  the  crop  a success.  Of  the  failures 
reported,  two  were  attributed  to  lack  of  inoculation,  one  to  winter- 
killing,  one  to  careless  pasturing,  one  to  poor  drainage  and  one 
to  drougth  after  seeding.  In  reply  to  the  question.  What  are  the 
causes  of  failure?  fourteen  replied,  weeds;  six,  no  inoculation;  eight, 
poor  drainage ; four,  early  pasturing ; and  three,  drought  after  seed- 
ing. Good  stands  were  reported  on  all  kinds  of  soils,  from  light 
sands  to  the  heaviest  clays.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  seeding 
was  done  in  April  or  early  in  May.  About  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the 
fields  were  seeded  without  a nurse  crop.  The  treatment  during  the 
first  season  was  in  nearly  all  cases  clipping  at  intervals  to  check 
weed  growth.  Only  two  growers  gave  their  fields  any  treatment,  ex- 
cept mowing,  after  the  first  season.  In  one  case  discing  is  prac- 
ticed in  spring  and  early  fall  and  in  the  other  after  each  cutting  for 
hay,  when  the  ground  is  dry.  Both  these  farmers  are  extensive  and 
very  successful  growers  of  alfalfa.  In  the  majority  of  the  cases 
reported  the  number  of  cuttings,  per  season,  for  hay  is  three  and 
the  average  yield  of  dry  hay  per  season  is  three  and  one-half  to  four 
tons,  while  three  of  the  largest  growers  report  averages  of  about 
five  tons  per  season.  In  all  cases,  except  one,  where  pasturing  was 
practiced  satisfactory  results  were  rc])orted. 


214 


The  reports  summarized  above  cover  an  aggregate  of  260  acres 
of  alfalfa,  standing  at  the  time  the  reports  were  made,  and  the  great 
majority  of  the  growers  expressed  themselves  as  highly  satisfied 
with  the  crop. 


SOIL  AND  SITUATION  FOR  ALFALFA. 

The  beginner  in  alfalfa  culture  should  be  careful  to  select  a 
piece  of  ground  that  is  well  suited  as  a home  for  the  crop.  It  will 
do  best  on  deep  loams  with  rather  open  subsoils  and  deep,  natural 
drainage.  Numerous  reports  show  that  good  results  can  be  secured 
on  almost  any  fertile  soil,  provided  that  it  has  good  drainage.  Where 
natural  drainage  is  imperfect,  deep,  artificial  underdrainage  may,  to 
a large  extent,  take  its  place.  Good  drainage  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  alfalfa,  because,  for  its  best  development,  the  roots  must  be  per- 
mitted to  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil.  It  will  not  thrive 
with  its  roots  in  standing  water.  Lands  subject  to  overflow  are 
unfit  for  alfalfa.  As  a rule  alfalfa  should  never  be  put  on 
low  bottom  lands  where  grasses  naturally  do  well,  because  the  situa- 
tion is  likely  to  be  too  wet.  High  situations  are  therefore  preferable. 
The  only  high  lands  not  suited  to  alfalfa  are  those  having  either  a 
hardpan  or  a very  gravelly  subsoil. 

Alfalfa  does  not  reach  its  best  development  until  three  or  more 
years  old.  For  this  reason  the  situation  selected  for  its  growth 
should  be  one  in  which  it  can  be  left  for  a number  of  years.  For 
the  same  reason  the  crop  is  not  suited  to  an  ordinary  rotation. 

SFFDING. 

The  soil  for  alfalfa  must  be  free  of  weed  seeds,  and  a fine,  deep 
seedbed  must  be  provided.  Alfalfa  plants  while  young  are  delicate 
and  easily  srnothered  by  weeds.  Clean  culture  is  therefore  necessary. 
The  seeds  are  small  and  must  have  a fine  seed-bed  in  order  that 
germination  and  early  growth  may  be  facilitated.  Since  the  crop 
is  to  remain  in  the  same  situation  for  a number  of  years  it  will  pay 
well  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  preparation  of  the  soil.  A full 
stand  of  plants  is  essential  and  to  secure  that,  as  well  as  a strong 
early  growth,  a good  seed-bed  is  necessary.  This  point  cannot  be 
too  strongly  emphasized.  A good  seed-bed  can  usually  be  prepared 


215 


after  corn  or  some  other  cultivated  crop  that  has  been  kept  clean. 

The  time  of  seeding  alfalfa  does  not  seem  to  be  very  important 
so  long  as  there  is  sufficient  moisture  to  give  the  plants  a good  start. 
Usually,  however,  it  will  be  best  to  sow  some  time  before  corn  plant- 
ing in  order  that  the  plants  may  develop  a good  root  system  be- 
fore dry  weather  begins.  After  it  is  once  well  established  the  crop 
can  stand  very  severe  droughts. 

The  seed  may  be  Sown  either  alone  or  with  about  a half  seeding 
of  oats  or  beardless  barley.  Where  the  ground  is  free  of  weed  seeds 
it  will  usually  be  best  to  sow  alone,  but  where  weeds  are  likely  to  be 
troublesome  a nurse-crop  should  be  used.  In  either  case  about  20 
pounds  of  good  seed  per  acre  should  be  used.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  a light  harrow.  If  a nurse-crop 
is  used  this  may  be  drilled  in  the  ordinary  way  and  the  alfalfa  sown 
on  top  and  lightly  covered  with  a harrow  or  weeder. 

The  nurse-crop  should  be  cut  for  hay  soon  after  it  heads  out 
so  as  to  give  the  alfalfa  full  possession  of  the  soil  before  the  hot 
weather  sets  in.  If  the  nurse-crop  is  allowed  to  mature  the  alfalfa 
will  be  shaded  too  long  and  will  not  develop  sufficient  strength  to 
bear  the  sudden  exposure  to  hot  weather.  In  several  instances  suc- 
cessful stands  of  alfalfa  have  been  secured  by  sowing  in  standing 
corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation. 

INOCUI.ATION. 

Alfalfa,  like  all  other  legumes,  requires  for  its  proper  develop- 
ment a certain  species  of  bacteria  to  work  upon  its  roots  and  gather 
for  it  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere.  If  these  bacteria  are  not  present, 
the  alfalfa  will  have  to  depend  for  its  nitrogen  upon  the  supply  in 
the  soil  which  is  usually  not  sufficient  to  insure  a thrifty  growth. 
In  nearly  all  cases  where  alfalfa  is  grown  for  the  first  time  inoculation 
is  necessary  and  should  not  he  neglected.  This  inoculation  may  be 
effected  by  means  of  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  where  the  bac- 
teria are  known  to  exist  or  by  treating  the  seed,  shortly  before  sow- 
ing, with  a pure  culture  of  the  alfalfa  bacteria.  If  alfalfa  soil  is  used, 
at  least  100  pounds  per  acre  should  be  applied.  Larger  quantities 
will  give  quicker  results.  It  may  be  sown  by  hand  while  the  seed- 
bed is  being  prepared,  or  at  the  time  of  seeding.  On  soils  not  rich 


2i6 


in  nitrogen  a dressing  of  farmyard  manure  will  give  excellent  re- 
sults in  giving  the  alfalfa  a vigorous  start  until  the  bacteria  become 
established. 


TREATMENT  OE  THE  GROWING  CROP. 

If  the  alfalfa  has  been  sown  alone  the  field  sould  be  clipped  with 
a miower  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  about  six  inches  high.  This  clip- 
ping is  necessary,  not  only  to  check  weed  growth,  but  to  strengthen 
the  young  alfalfa  plants.  The  clipping  causes  the  plants  to  branch 
out  and  grow  with  renewed  vigor.  This  treatment  should  be  re- 
peated several  times  during  the  summer.  Every  clipping  will 
strengthen  the  growth  and  it  should  in  no.case  be  neglected,  because 
neglect  may  mean  failure. 

Where  a nurse-crop  is  used  this  should  be  made  into  hay  at  the 
proper  stage  and  the  clipping  continued  at  intervals  as  in  the  case 
were  no  nurse-crop  is  used.  The  clippings  should  generally  be  left 
on  the  ground. 

After  the  first  season  the  alfalfa,  unless  it  is  used  as  a pasture, 
should  be  cut  for  hay  every  time  about  one-tenth  of  the  heads  are 
in  bloom.  After  each  cutting,  if  the  ground  is  dry,  it  will  usually  be 
well  to  go  over  the  field  with  a disc  harrow.  This  is  practiced 
by  some  of  the  best  growers  with  excellent  results.  The  discing 
splits  the  crowns  and  strengthens  the  growth.  The  disc  must  be 
set  at  a small  angle  so  as  not  to  cut  ofif  or  tear  out  the  plants. 
By  some  this  discing  is  done  in  two  directions,  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles. 


MAKING  ALEALEA  HAY. 

To  secure  the  largest  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  per  acre, 
alfalfa  for  hay  should  be  cut  when  one-tenth,  or  at  the  most  one- 
fifth,  of  the  blossoms  have  opened.  AMiere  much  is  to  be  cut  it  is 
well  to  begin  early,  because,  as  it  gets  older,  alfalfa  deteriorates 
very  rapidly  in  feeding  value.  Many  analyses  and  feeding  experi- 
ments have  been  made  by  the  experiment  stations  and  all  show  that 
to  get  the  best  results  alfalfa  must  be  cut  at  a very  much  earlier 
stage  of  development  than  red  clover.  To  begin  cutting  when  one- 
tenth  of  the  heads  are  in  bloom  is  a good  rule  to  follow.  Late  cut- 


217 


ting  not  only  means  a poor  quality  of  hay  but  is  also  detrimental  to 
the  development  of  the  next  cutting,  so  that  early  cutting  should 
be  pacticed  regardless  of  the  weather. 

During  the  curing  process  alfalfa  must  be  carefully  handled, 
because  the  leaves  soon  dry  and  are  then  easily  broken  off.  The 
leaves  are  more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  good  wheat  bran, 
and  rough  handling  when  dry  may  very  much  lessen  the  value  of 
the  hay.  It  should  never  be  handled  when  perfectly  dry.  As  a rule 
it  is  wise  to  use  a tedder  a few  hours  after  mowing,  or  as  soon  as 
it  is  well  wilted  on  the  surface,  and  to  rake  it  into  loose  wind-rows 
as  soon  as  the  rake  will  handle  it.  If  the  weather  is  good  it  may 
be  cured  in  the  wind-row,  but  often  it  will  be  best  to  cure  it  in  small 
high  cocks.  All  subsequent  handling  when  hauling  to  the  barn  or 
stack  should  be  done  while  it  is  slightly  m.oist  with  dew  so  that  the 
loss  of  leaves  may  be  reduced  to  a minimum.  Rain  injures  alfalfa 
even  more  than  it  does  clover.  When  placed  in  stacks,  which  should 
be  done  only  when  unavoidable,  these  should  be  topped  with  tim- 
othy hay  or  other  material  that  will  shed  rain.  As  a rule  alfalfa 
hay  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  make  and  cure  properly  than  is 
clover,  but,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  same  methods  will 
apply  to  both  crops. 


pasturing  alpalpa. 

As  a rule  alfalfa  should  not  be  pastured  the  first  season,  and  but 
lightly  the  second.  At  no  time  should  it  be  pastured  closely.  By 
close  pasturing  the  crowns  of  the  plants  are  injured.  Horses  and 
sheep  are  more  likely  to  do  damage  in  this  way  than  are  cattle  or 
hogs.  On  account  of  injury  to  the  crowns  from  tramping,  it  should 
not  be  pastured  when  the  ground  is  soft.  As  has  been  already  stated, 
alfalfa  makes  excellent  pasture  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  being 
very  nutritious  and  healthful.  With  cattle  and  sheep  care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  bloating.  The  animals,  at  first,  sould  be  turned  in 
for  only  a short  time  each  day  until  they  become  accustomed  to  it, 
and  when  the  alfalfa  is  wet,  as  after  a rain,  there  is  still  greater  need 
of  care.  It  is  wise  to  be  a little  more  careful  than  with  clover. 


2i8 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCUUSIONS. 

Good  crops  of  alfalfa  can  be  grown  on  almost  all  Indiana  soils 
that  have  good,  deep  drainage.  Water  must  never  stand  on  or  near 
the  surface. 

It  will  yield  from  3 to  5 tons  of  excellent  hay  per  acre  per 
season,  and  for  soiling  or  pasture  it  has  few  equals. 

It  is  rich  in  flesh  forming  nutrients  and  is  excellent  for  feeding 
with  corn  or  other  starchy  foods. 

It  is  more  digestible  than  red  clover  and  is  not  far  behind  wheat 
bran  in  feeding  value. 

It  is  an  excellent  soil  renovator,  gathering  nitrogen  from  the 
air,  opening  up  the  soil  and  bringing  large  quantities  of  mineral 
food  from  the  subsoil. 

It  may  be  sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  to  midsummer, 
provided  there  is  sufficient  moisture  to  give  it  a good  start,  but  rather 
early  sowing  seems  preferable. 

The  seed-bed  must  be  deep  and  finely  prepared  and  about  20 
pounds  of  good  seed  per  acre  should  be  used.  The  seed  should  be 
lightly  covered  with  a harrow  or  weeder. 

It  may  be  sown  either  with  or  without  a nurse-crop.  The 
nurse-crop  is  to  be  recommended  where  weeds  are  likely  to  be  troub- 
lesome, but  it  should  in  all  cases  be  cut  for  hay  soon  after  it  heads 
out.  A half  seeding  of  oats  or  beardless  barley  makes  a good  nurse 
crop. 

Inoculation  will  be  necessary  in  nearly  all  cases  and  should  not 
be  neglected. 

A good  dressing  of  farmyard  manure  will  aid  materially  in 
securing  a good  stand  and  vigorous  growth.  It  will  also  facilitate 
the  inoculating  process. 

During  the  first  season  the  growth  should  be  cut  down  every 
time  it  reaches  a height  of  five  or  six  inches.  Where  a nurse  crop 
is  used  this  treatment  should  also  be  practiced  after  the  latter  has 
been  removed. 

If  the  crop  is  grown  for  hay  it  should  be  cut  every  time  about 
one-tenth  of  the  blooms  have  appeared.  It  is  generally  not  wise 
to  try  to  get  a hay  crop  the  first  season. 


2ig 


Alfalfa  should  not  be  pastured  the  first  season  and  never  closely. 
When  cattle  or  sheep  are  pastured  on  it,  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent bloating. 

Cultivation  with  a disc  harrow,  set  shallow,  after  cutting  in 
July  and  August,  if  the  soil  is  dry,  is  likely  to  be  beneficial. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  102.  Vol.  XII. 
March,  1905. 


Apple  Growing  in  Indiana. 


PnDllslieil  1)7  ihe  Station: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA, 
U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL.  • 


William  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Addison  C.  Harris,  _ _ - - Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Sylvester  Johnson,  _ _ _ _ Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Beam,  _ _ _ _ _ Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  - - - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  _ _ - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co 

Charles  Major,  _ _ _ _ Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arville  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Associate  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  -----  - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Apple  Growing  in  Indiana. 


By  J.  TROOP 

A half  century  or  more  ago  it  was  not  considered  a difficult 
matter  to  grow  apples  to  perfection  in  Indiana.  Indeed  the  fathers 
of  the  present  generation  delight  in  telling  how  much  better  the 
apples  were  when  they  were  boys  than  they  are  now,  that  the  trees 
were  longer  lived  then  than  now;  that  there  were  few,  if  any,  in- 
sects or  diseases  then,  to  bother  the  fruit  or  trees;  and,  indeed, 
an  occasional  old  orchard  or  parts  of  it,  with  trees  thirty  to  forty 
feet  high  and  two  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  which  we  sometimes 
find  in  certain  favored  localities,  would  seem  to  bear  testimony 
to  the  truth  of  the  statement.  And  yet  we  must  remember  that 
tastes  have  changed  very  much  since  these  men  were  boys,  and 
that  the  favorable  conditions  which  existed  then  are  no  longer 
to  be  found.  With  the  destruction  of  the  forests  which  originally 
covered  the  greater  portion  of  our  state,  and  the  natural  vegeta- 
tion which  covered  the  soil  both  in  swamps,  marshes  and  on 
upland,  we  have  destroyed  the  natural  food-plants  of  miriads 
of  insects,and  the  nesting  places  of  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  insect-eating  birds.  Not  only  this,  but  great  numbers  of  other 
insectivorous  animals  of  various  kinds  have  been  destroyed  by 
this  same  process  of  subduing  the  land  and  rendering  it  suitable 
for  cultivation.  By  this  process  the  climate  has  become  not  only 
more  severe,  but  much  more  erratic  than  formerly.  Then,  too,  we 
no  longer  have  the  virgin  soil,  already  rich  in  all  the  elements  that 
go  to  produce  both  tree  and  fruit  to  perfection,  but  one  that  in 
many  cases,  has  been  cropped  until  it  has  become  practically  ex- 
hausted. So  then  we  no  longer  meet  with  the  same  conditions 
that  our  forefathers  enjoyed.  The  trees  are  surrounded  by  en- 
tirely different  environments,  and  so  the  fruit-growers  of  today 
have  an  entirely  different  problem  to  solve  from  that  which  con- 
fronted them.  Seventy-five  years  ago  science  had  very  little  to 
do  with  the  raising  of  fruit ; today  nothing  is  undertaken  by  the 


224 


progressive  fruit  grower,  without  first  asking  why?  From  the 
selection  of  the  site,  through  all  the  various  processes  of 
planting,  cultivating,  pruning,  thinning,  harvesting,  etc.,  until  the 
apples  finally  reach  the  customer,  after  spending  from  three  to  six 
months  in  cold  storage,  science  plays  a ver}'  important  part.  So, 
then,  the  successful  fruit  grower  of  the  future  must  take  science 
as  an  active  partner  in  the  business,  because  it  will  tell  him  why 
it  is  necessary  to  do  many  things  now  that  were  not  necessary 
in  the  early  days  of  fruit  growing  in  this  country. 

It  is  not,  however,  the  aim  of  this  bulletin  to  discuss  the  tech- 
nical, scientific  questions  which  enter  into  the  subject  of  apple 
culture  to  any  great  extent,  but  rather  to  place  the  necessary 
information  concerning  the  production  of  an  apple  orchard,  in 
such  a comprehensive  form  as  to  enable  us  to  answer  the  many 
questions  which  are  constantly  coming  to  us  from  those  who  are 
contemplating  planting  an  orchard  in  the  near  future.  This  in 
itself  is  an  evidence  of  the  fact  that  such  information  is  needed. 
New  truths  are  constantly  being  discovered  by  those  who  are 
making  a life  study  of  the  problems  presented,  and  new  genera- 
tions of  fruit  growers  are  constantly  coming  on,  who  must  learn 
these  truths  either  by  their  own  experience  or  from  the  experience 
of  others.  The  latter,  if  not  the  most  satisfactory  method,  is  at 
least  the  method  which  is  most  likely  to  yield  immediate  results. 
And  so  it  is  with  a hope  of  stimulating  the  younger  generation 
in  particular,  to  greater  activity  along  this  line  that  the  following 
pages  are  written. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  that  our  cultivated  apple  is  not 
a native  of  this  country,  but,  like  most  of  our  orchard  fruits,  was 
brought  to  this  country  by  the  early  settlers,  from  Europe  and 
Asia,  where  the  process  of  cultivation  and  improvement  has  been 
going  on  for  thousands  of  years.  Our  cultivated  varieties  of  to- 
day then,  are  the  product  of  centuries  of  horticultural  skill  in 
selection,  cross-pollination  and  hybridization.  In  fact  this  pro- 
cess has  been  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  be  next 
to  an  impossibility  for  any  one  to  trace,  with  any  degree  of  ac- 
curacy, the  pedigree  of  any  of  our  cultivated  varieties.  When  wx 
come  to  understand  the  man}"  different  strains  of  blood  which 
enter  into  its  constitution  it  does  not  seem  so  strange  that  it 


225 

should  have  its  likes  and  dislikes  as  regards  soil  and  climatic 
conditions.  And  yet,  like  the  strawberry,  it  has  a wonderful 
power  of  adapting  itself  to  different  environments,  thus  making 
it  one  of  the  most  valuable  fruits  grown  in  this  climate. 

Adaptability  of  Soil  and  Climate. — In  Indiana  as  well  as  in 
every  other  State  in  the  Union,  there  are  localities  which  are 
naturally  adapted  to  fruit  growing,  while  other  portions  are  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  growing  of  grain  and  hay.  This  may  be  due 
either  to  climatic  influences  or  to  the  character  of  the  soil  or 
both.  In  this  case  both  of  these  factors  play  an  important  part, 
but,  generally  speaking,  Indiana  is  essentially  an  apple  growing 
state.  It  is  true  that  the  state  is  not  so  favarably  situated 
as  is  Michigan  in  having  a large  body  of  water  situated  so  as  to 
very  materially  influence  the  temperature  for  a considerable  dis- 
tance along  its  borders,  only  a small  portion  of  Indiana  being  thus 
protected.  But  with  the  same  care  and  attention,  the  same  va- 
rieties which  are  grown  in  Michigan  may  be  successfully  grown  in 
Indiana.  It  ’S  a notable  fact  that  the  section  of  Northern  In- 
diana, where  the  soil  conditions  are  best  adapted  for  fruit  grow- 
ing, is  to  a certain  extent,  under  the  ameliorating  influence  of 
Lake  Michigan,  so  that  there  is  practically  no  difference  between 
Michigan  and  Northwestern  Indiana,  when  judged  from  a hor- 
ticultural standpoint.  The  northwestern  portion  of  the  state, 
however,  was  not  intended  by  nature  for  commerical  fruit  grow- 
ing. Here  both  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  better  adapted 
to  the  growing  of  other  crops  which  are  less  sensitive  to  the 
variations  of  temperature.  This  section  of  the  state  is  for  the 
most  part  too  flat  for  orchard  purposes,  but  is  especially  adapted 
to  crops  grown  by  the  market  gardener,  the  dairyman,  and  beef 
raiser.  And  yet  even  in  this  section  there  are  many  localities 
where,  with  a little  protection  in  the  way  of  a light  screen  of 
forest  trees,  the  farmer  is  able  to  supply  his  family  with  all  the 
apples  needed,  and  have  some  to  spare. 

Good  orchard  lands  may  be  found  in  every  county  compris- 
ing the  central  portion  of  the  state,  although  there  are  exceptional 
localities  where  the  surface  is  too  flat,  and  where  the  land  is  better 
adapted  to  other  purposes.  Although  a hundred  miles  farther 
south,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  the  same  at  La- 


226 


Fayette  as  it  is  at  LaPorte,  which  is  due  in  a large  degree  to  the 
influence  of  the  lake  in  modifying  the  climate  at  the  latter  point. 

In  the  southern  portion  of  the  state  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  about  ten  degrees  warmer  than  that  of  the  northern 
end.  With  other  favorable  conditions,  such  as  soil,  protection 
from  severe  winds,  and  perfect  atmospheric  drainage,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  quite  rolling,  na- 
ture seems  to  have  intended  the  greater  part  of  it  for  fruit  growing. 
Here  the  soil  is  for  the  most  part  decidedly  different  from  that 
found  farther  north.  In  a report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  made  some  years  ago,  mention  is  made  of  the  “White 
Clay  lands,”  which  cover  a large  portion  of  Southern  Indiana, 
Ohio  and  Illinois,  where  most  of  the  finest  apples  are  grown. 
In  Indiana  the  northern  boundary  of  this  peculiar  formation,  ac- 


Fig.  1.  View  in  an  Indiana  orchard  that  yields  from  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  an  acre  annually. 


227 

cording  to  the  description,  begins  near  Terre  Haute  on  the  west 
and  passes  more  or  less  irregularly  across  the  state,  passing  into 
Ohio  near  Brookville,  Franklin  county.  Thus  the  greater  portion 
of  the  state  south  of  this  line  is  made  up  of  this  white  clay  deposit. 
In  many  places  this  clay  becomes  almost  a brick-red,  but  the  char- 
acteristics are,  in  general,  the  same,  whatever  the  color.  An  ap- 
ple orchard  consisting  of  such  varieties  as  Rome  Beauty,  Winesap, 
Jonathan,  Rail’s  Genet,  Grimes,  and  some  others,  planted  on 
these  clay  lands,  is  certain  to  reward  the  owner  who  gives  it  in- 
telligent attention.  (Fig.  i.) 

Adaptability  of  the  Man. — It  matters  not  how  much  nature 
may  favor  a locality  with  soil  and  climate,  if  she  neglects  to  fur- 
nish the  man  with  the  necessary  qualifications  which  go  to  make 
a successful  fruit  grower,  the  business  will  never  amount  to  any- 
thing. The  successful  orchardist  is  born,  not  made.  He  must 
have  a natural  love  for  the  business,  or  he  is  sure  to  fall  short 
of  reaching  the  highest  results. 

With  a good  foundation  to  build  on,  education  and  experience 
along  this  line  will  accomplish  wonderful  results ; but  it  is  as  true 
in  apple-growing  as  in  any  other  business,  that  education  does 
not  make  the  man,  but  it  will  wonderfully  inprove  him  after  he  is 
made.  \Miat  we  need,  then,  in  this  state,  is  men  with  an  un- 
limited amount  of  push  and  energy,  coupled  with  the  proper 
amount  of  intelligence  directed  along  right  lines  to  carry  out  the 
plans  and  general  principles  which  are  essential  to  apple  culture, 
and  the  results  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

Some  of  the  Points  'which  the  Beginner  should  Keep  in  Mind. 

There  are  a few  general  principles  which  should  always  be 
kept  in  mind  in  planning  for  and  planting  an  orchard. 

(i)  Selection  of  a Site. — One  of  the  most  important  points 
in  the  starting  of  an  orchard  is  the  selection  of  a suitable  site. 
Neglecting  to  do  this  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  so  many 
orchards  throughout  the  state  are  unprofitable.  The  trees  were 
planted  either  upon  unsuitable  soil,  or  where  the  general  lay  of 
the  land  was  not  suitable  for  a strong,  vigorous  growth  of  the 
trees,  without  which  a maximum  crop  of  fruit  cannot  be  expected. 

The  site  for  an  orchard  should  be  high,  or  relatively  high. 


228 


This  will  admit  of  good  soil  and  atmospheric  drainage,  both  of 
which  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  highest  success.  Even  a 
few  feet  above  the  general  level  will  often  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
winter  killing.  We  must  remember  that  warm  air  rises  and  cold 
air  settes  into  the  low  lands  and  hollows  just  as  water  flows  down 
hill  to  the  creeks  and  rivers.  A difference  of  one  hundred  feet 
in  elevation  between  two  points,  in  a still  cold  night  will  often 
make  a difference  of  ten  to  fifteen  degrees  in  temperature.  This 
would  often  be  sufficient  to  destroy  fruit  buds  in  the  low  lands, 
while  those  on  the  higher  elevations  would  escape.  In  order  to 
show  the  effect  of  only  a slight  elevation,  when  the  temperature 
is  near  the  danger  line,  I will  give  an  example  that  came  under 
my  observation  recently.  A peach  orchard  in  Southern  Indiana 
was  planted  on  comparatively  level  land.  The  winter  being  quite 
severe,  the  owner,  after  examining  the  buds  which  could  be 
reached  from  the  ground,  pronounced  them  all  dead.  Later  on 
it  was  founnd  that  while  those  on  the  lower  limbs  were  killed,  the 
upper  half  of  the  trees  produced  a good  crop  of  fruit.  The  dan- 
ger line  in  this  case  was  about  six  or  seven  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Doubtless,  too,  a better  circulation  of  air  in  the 
tops  of  the  trees  contributed  a good  deal  towards  their  escape 
from  frost. 

On  the  other  hand  the  orchard  should  not  be  too  much  ex- 
posed to  severe  winds.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  plant  the 
orchard  upon  a high  elevation,  which  is  exposed  to  the  sweep  of 
cold  winds  in  winter  as  well  as  the  severe  winds  of  summer,  it 
will  be  well  to  protect  it  on  the  north  and  west  with  a row  of 
Noway  spruce.* 

If  the  trees  composing  the  screen  are  placed  just  far  enough 
apart  so  that  the  branches  will  intermingle  after  a few  years’ 
growth,  they  will  check  the  force  of  the  wind,  but  allow  it  to  pass 
through  at  a moderate  velocity  which  will  be  better  for  the 
orchard,  both  winter  and  summer,  than  stopping  it  altogether. 

The  Soil. — Any  good,  strong  soil  will  do,  preferably  a clay 
loam,  well  drained,  with  a subsoil  capable  of  holding  much  mois- 

*1  would  not  advise  using  the  Red  Cedar  on  account  of  the  Orange  Rust 
which  often  attacks  the  apple  leaves,  and  which  starts  on  the  Red  Cedar. 


229 

ture  for  the  use  of  the  trees  during  a drouth,  and  while  developing 
their  fruit.  Black,  mucky  soils  often  found  in  river  bottoms  and 
low  places,  are  not  at  all  suitable  for  fruit  trees,  as  it  tends  to  pro- 
duce a rank,  succulent  growth  which  is  easily  winter  killed,  and 
entirely  unsuitable  for  the  production  of  fine  fruit.  Soil  that  will 
produce  a good  crop  of  wheat,  if  it  is  high  enough,  will  produce  a 
good  apple  orchard.  Trees  grown  on  such  soil  will  make  a good, 
healthy  growth  and  go  into  winter  quarters  in  prime  condition. 
Such  trees  seldom  winter  kill. 

Selection  of  Varieties. — Next  to  the  location  a proper  selec- 
tion of  varieties  is  perhaps  the  most  important.  It  is  to  the  orch- 
ardist  what  the  selection  of  the  breed  is  to  the  stock  man.  In  se- 
lecting varieties  for  a commercial  orchard  the  following  points 
should  be  considered:  (i)  What  varieties  will  do  best  in  the  par- 
ticular locality?  (2)  What  varieties  will  sell  best  in  the  markets 
which  it  is  proposed  to  supply?  In  general,  for  market,  a variety 
should  combine  the  following  qualities,  and  in  the  order  named : 
Hardiness,  productiveness,  beauty  and  quality.  This  is  admirably 
illustrated  in  the  Ben  Davis  apple.  For  a number  of  years  no 
other  variety  has  been  so  successfully  grown  and  marketed  in 
such  large  quantities  throughout  the  Central  West  as  this ; simply 
because  the  tree  is  hardy,  a good  grower,  productive,  and  when 
properly  cared  for,  bears  large,  handsome  fruit,  but  of  hardly  me- 
dium quality ; and  yet  it  brings  good-  prices  in  our  city  markets 
where  people  depend  very  largely  upon  the  eye  in  selecting  their 
fruit. 

Then,  too,  for  a commercial  orchard,  one  should  choose  only 
a few  standard  varieties,  but  plant  enough  trees  of  each  to  make  it 
worth  while  for  a buyer  to  look  at  them.  If  they  are  intended  for 
home  use  and  a home  market  only,  then  choose  fewer  trees  of 
a greater  number  of  varieties  so  as  to  extend  the  season  through- 
out the  year. 

In  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  208,  on  varieties  of  Fruits  Recom- 
mended for  Planting,  recently  published  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  compiled  by  Hon.  W.  FI.  Ragan, 
whom  most  of  our  older  fruit  growers  know  well,  that  portion  of 
Indiana  north  of  latitude  40°,  is  placed  in  the  same  fruit  district 
with  Northern  Ohio,  Michigan,  Northern  Pennsylvania,  the 


230 

greater  portion  of  New  York,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and 
the  south  half  of  Vermont,  New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  All  that 
part  south  of  latitude  40°  is  placed  with  Southern  Ohio,  South- 
ern Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  the  west  half  of  Virginia,  and 
North  Carolina,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Northern  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama,Arkansas,  Indian  Territory,  Oklahoma,  Southern  Missouri 
and  Illinois. 

The  following  list  of  varieties  is  adapted  to  Indiana  especially : 

List  of  Varieties  for  Northern  Indiana. 

For  Home  Use. — Baldwin,  Benoni,  Fallawater,  Fall  Wine, 
Fall  Pippin,  Fameuse,  Gideon,  Golden  Russet,  Golden  Sweet, 
Grimes’  Golden,  Hubbardston,  Jeffries,  Jonathan,  King,  Maiden 
Blush,  Northern  Spy,  Oldenburg,  Peck  Pleasant,  Porter,  Red  As- 
trachan,,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Sweet  Bough,  Stark,  Tetofsky, 
Talman  Sweet,  Wagener,  Wealthy,  Western  Beauty, Yellow  Trans- 
parent, York  Imperial.  Crabs — Red  Lake,  Martha,  Whitney. 

For  Market. — Baldwin,  Grimes’  Golden,  Hubbardston,  Jona- 
than, King,  INorthern  Spy,  Oldenburg,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
Stark,  Totofsky,  Wealthy,  Yellow  Transparent,  York  Imperial. 

List  of  Varieties  for  the  Central  Section. 

For  Home  Use. — Bailey  Sweet,  Benoni,  Chenango,  Early 
Harvest,  Fallawater,  Fall  wine.  Grimes’  Golden,  Indiana  Fa- 
vorite, Jeffries,  Jonathan,  Maiden  Blush,  Pewaukee,  Oldenburg, 
Rail’s  Genet,  Rambo,  Red  June,  Rome  Beauty,  Roman  Stem,  Rox- 
bury  Russet,  Salome,  Smith  Cider,  Wagener,  Wealthy,  White  Pip- 
pin, Winesap,  Wolf  River,  Yellow  Transparent,  York  Imperial. 
Crabs — Red  Lake,  Martha,  Whitney,  Hyslop. 

For  Market. — Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Grimes’  Golden,  Indiana 
Favorite,Jonathan,  Maiden  Blush,  North  Western  Greening,  Old- 
enburg, Pewaukee,  Rome  Beauty,  Stark,  Twenty  Ounce, 
Wealthy,  Winesap,  Yellow  Transparent,  York  Imperial. 

List  of  Varieties  for  the  Southern  Section. 

For  Home  Use. — Benoni,  Early  Harvest,  Jonathan,  Grimes’ 
Golden,  Maiden  Blush,  Oldenburg,  Rail’s  Genet,  Rome  Beauty, 


231 

Salome,  Wealthy,  Winesap,  Yellow  Transparent.  Crabs — Ken- 
tucky Red,  Cider. 

For  Market. — Benoni,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Grimes’  Golden, 
Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  Yellow  Transparent. 

Black  Ben  Davis  may  eventually  surpass  the  old  Ben  Davis 
as  a market  apple,  but  it  has  not  been  tested  sufficiently  on  our  soil 
to  give  it  a standing  in  our  state. 

Wolf  River  is  a very  large  and  showy  apple,  but  drops  badly, 
and  is  also  subject  to  rot  while  yet  on  the  trees ; so  it  can  not  be 
classed  as  a valuable  market  variety,  except,  perhaps,  in  certain 
localities.  While  there  are  a number  of  Russian  varieties  grown 
in  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  which  are  very  good  sum- 
mer and  fall  apples,  I have  yet  to  see  a first-class  winter  variety 
for  this  climate. 

Procuring  the  Trees. — Unless  a man  has  had  some  ex- 
perience in  grafting  and  budding  apple  trees,  it  will  usually  be 
cheaper  for  him  to  buy  his  trees  ready  grown  than  to  attempt  to 
propagate  and  grow  them  himself.  The  propagation  of  trees  has 
come  to  be  a business  in  itself,  and  is  not  generally  entered  into 
to  any  great  extent  by  the  commercial  fruit  grower.  The  ques- 
tion that  concerns  him  most  is  how  to  procure  tfees  that  have 
been  well  grown,  and  are  true  to  name?  In  answering  that  ques- 
tion I would  say  procure  the  trees  direct  from  a good,  reputable 
nurseryman,  one  who  has  a standing  in  his  community,  and  a 
reputation  for  honesty  and  fair  dealing,  and  the  probabilities  are 
that  the  trees  and  the  varieties  will  be  what  they  are  represented 
to  be.  It  does  not  matter  whether  they  have  been  grafted  upon 
whole  or  piece  roots.  Experiments  along  this  line  in  the  Experi- 
ment Station  orchard  show  very  conclusively  that  during  the  first 
ten  years,  at  least,  there  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  growth 
or  bearing  qualities  of  trees  which  have  been  propagated  by  these 
different  methods. 

In  general  procure  the  trees  from  as  near  home  as  possible. 
If,  however,  circumstances  seem  to  make  it  desirable  to  send  to 
other  states  for  the  trees,  I would  prefer  to  send  either  East  or 
West  rather  than  very  farm  North.  A winter  variety  in  Minne- 
sota or  Wisconsin  is  very  likely  to  become  a fall  variety  when 
grov.  n 1..  Indiana.  Trees  from  very  far  South  had  better  be 


232 

planted  in  the  spring  in  order  that  they  may  have  one  season  in 
which  to  become  established  before  cold  weather. 

Treatment  During  the  First  Five  Years. — All  that  should 
be  expected  of  a tree  during  the  first  four  or  five  years  is  that  it 
should  make  a strong,  healthy,  vigorous  growth.  The  energies 
of  the  grower,  then,  should  be  turned  in  that  direction.  Prepare 
the  ground  as  for  a crop  of  corn,  always  remembering 
that  it  can  not  all  be  plowed  again  after  the  trees  are 
once  set,  hence  the  importance  of  thorough  prepara- 
tion at  the  outset.  Set  the  trees  either  in  the  fall  or  spring;  I 
would  prefer  the  fall.  Set  them  not  less  than  two  rods  apart  each 
way,  forty  feet  would  be  better  for  large  spreading  varieties  like 
Rhode  Island  Greening.  Trees  often  suffer  for  the  want  of  room, 
seldom  by  having  too  much.  Cut  off  all  roots  whether  broken  or 
not,  to  within  five  or  six  inches  of  the  trunk  (I  am  inclined  to  think 
that  further  experiments  will  prove  that  three  or  four  inches  will  be 
better)  at  the  same  time  cut  back  the  top  to  correspond  with  the  loss 
of  roots.  If  the  trees  are  planted  in  the  fall,  the  ends  of  the  roots 
will  have  formed  a callus  by  spring  and  a fresh,  new  lot  of  feeding 
roots  will  soon  begin  to  push  out  and  be  able  to  furnish  a greater 
supply  of  plant  food  to  the  top  than  they  would  have  done  had 
all  of  the  original  roots  been  left  on.  Our  experiments  for  several 
years  along  this  line  have  proved  very  clearly  that  the  trees  that 
were  pruned  according  to  the  Stringfellow  method,  which  is  still 
more  severe,  and  planted  in  the  fall,  have  made  a better  root  sys- 
tem, and  produced  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  more  growth  of 
top  during  the  first  season  than  those  planted  in  the  usual  way. 

Make  the  rows  perfectly  straight  by  first  laying  off  the  field 
and  placing  a small  stake  where  each  tree  is  to  stand.  Procure 
a broad  six  inches  wide  and  about  five  feet  long  and  bore  a hole 
an  inch  in  diameter  in  each  end  and  cut  out  a notch  exactly  in 
the  middle  like  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2. 

\\  hen  a tree  is  to  be  planted  place  the  notch  around  the 
stake  where  the  tree  is  to  stand  then  put  other  pegs  through  the 


233 

noles  at  the  end , lift  of¥  the  board  and  dig  the  hole,  then  place  the 
board  back  over  the  pegs,  place  the  tree  in  the  notch,  and  fill  in 
the  soil.  Proceed  in  this  way  till  all  the  trees  are  planted.  It  will 
be  seen  at  once  that  if  the  stakes  were  set  in  straight  rows  the 
trees  must  be  also,  because  each  tree  stands  exactly  in  the  place 
of  a stake.  By  this  simple  process  several  sets  of  men  may  be 
at  work  at  the  same  time  in  different  parts  of  the  field. 

• Set  the  trees  just  about  as  deep  as  they  grew  in  the  nursery 
row,  leaning  them  a little  towards  the  prevailitig  winds.  Place 
good  surface  soil  around  the  roots  and  firm  it  well  by  tramping  so 
that  the  young,  feeding  roots  will  come  into  immediate  contact 
with  the  plant  food  as  soon  as  they  start.  No  water  is  necessary 
unless  the  soil  is  unusually  dry.  Do  not  place  manure  of  any  kind 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  roots,  unless  it  is  well  rotted  and 
has  been  first  well  mixed  with  the  soil.  No  mulch  will  be  neces- 
sary if  the  soil  is  kept  loose  by  frequent  cultivation  as  explained 
farther  on. 

Make  a Plat  of  the  Orchard. — As  soon  as  the  trees  have 
been  planted,  procure  a sufficient  quantity  of  zinc  or  copper  labels, 
upon  which  stamp  or  write  the  name  of  each  variety,  and  attach 
one  to  each  tree  or  each  row,  if  the  entire  row  consists  of  one  va- 
riety. Then  as  a double  safeguard  against  the  loss,  and  conse- 
quent confusion  of  names,  procure  a blank  book  and  in  it  make  a 
plat  of  the  orchard,  locating  each  tree  by  means  of  a dot  or  circle, 
and  numbering  these  from  one  end  of  the  row  to  the  other,  thus : 

1—  4 Rome  Beauty. 
5—  8 Winesap. 

9-10  Fall  Wine. 

11  —13  Blk.  Ben  Davis 
14—16  Genet. 

17—25  Grimes. 

21—24  Tulpehocken. 
25—28  Fall  Pippin. 
29—32  Jonathan. 
33—40  Wealthy. 


Fig.  3.  Example  of  plat  of  trees. 


1234  5 678 

o o — — o o o o o o 

9 10  11  12  13  14  15  16 

o o o o o o o o 

17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24 

o o o o o o o o 

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 

o o o o o o o o 

3 3 3 4 3l5  3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 

o o o o o o o o 


234 

This  will  enable  one  to  find  the  name  of  any  tree  in  the 
orchard  at  any  time,  whether  the  label  has  been  lost  or  not.  If 
such  a plat  were  made  by  every  orchardist  at  the  time  the  trees 
were  planted,  and  before  the  little  w’ooden  labels  have  been  lost, 
much  of  the  confusion  of  names  so  often  seen  at  our  county  fairs 
would  be  avoided. 

Protection  against  Mice  and  Rabbits. — If  the  soil  around  the 
young  trees  has  been  kept  well  cultivated,  and  free  from  grass 
and  weeds,  there  will  not  be  much  danger  from  mice  gnawing  the 
bark  off  during  the  winter ; but  rabbits  are  very  liable  to  do  much 
injury  during  the  winter,  when  all  else  is  covered  with  snow,  by 
eating  off  the  bark  and  tender  branches  where  they  can  be 
reached.  A good  preventative  against  the  attacks  of  both  of  these 
pests  is  to  make  a mound  of  earth  a foot  high  around  the  base  of 
each  tree,  making  a smooth  surface  with  the  back  of  the  spade. 
I have  practiced  this  for  several  years  without  the  loss  of  a sin- 
gle tree.  It  should  be  done  just  before  winter  sets  in,  and  the 
mounds  pulled  down  again  the  following  spring. 

A more  permanent  protection  against  rabbits  may  be  given 
by  the  use  of  an  inch-mesh  poultry  netting,  cut  the  proper  width 
to  wrap  around  the  tree,  fastening  it  in  place  with  one  or  two 
wires.  It  should  be  made  large  enough  to  allow  for  two  or  three 
years’  growth  of  the  tree  without  crowding,  after  which  it  will 
need  no  protection. 

Cultivation. — Give  the  young  trees  the  same  care  that  you 
would  give  a field  of  corn  which  you  expected  to  yield  a maxi- 
mum crop.  That  means  that  they  should  not  be  set  in  a field  of 
oats,  wheat,  rye,  blue  grass  or  any  other  sowed  crop,  but  it  does 
not  prevent  the  growing  of  a crop  of  corn,  potatoes  or  beans  in 
the  orchard  for  possibly  three  or  four  years  after  planting,  pro- 
viding the  soil  is  kept  well  fertilized,  and  providing,  also,  that 
the  owner  does  not  think  more  of  the  crop  of  corn,  etc.,  than  he 
does  of  the  trees.  Never  allow  a careless  hired  man  to  run  the 
cultivator  in  an  orchard.  Such  a man  is  about  as  injurious  to 
young  apple  trees  as  a flock  of  sheep,  or  a drove  of  horses  or 
cattle,  neither  of  which  should  be  tolerated  in  a newly  set  orch- 
ard. Horses  and  cattle  are  out  of  place  there  at  any  time. 

Unless  the  land  is  quite  rolling,  keep  it  well  cultivated  until 


235 

the  trees  begin  to  bear;  feed  them  according  to  their  needs, 
and  use  a cover  crop  for  fall  and  winter  protection,  to 
be  plowed  under  in  the  spring.  In  most  parts  of  Southern  In- 
diana the  orchard  lands  are  too  rolling  to  admit  of  constant  cul- 
tivation, and  so  the  mulch  system  may  be  substituted  there  to  ad- 
vantage. In  fact  it  is  absolutely  necessary  in  some  sections  to 
keep  the  soil  covered  at  all  times,  except  a small  space  around  the 
trees,  with  some  cover-crop,  like  cow  peas,  soy  beans  or  rye, 
which  may  be  worked  into  the  soil  with  a disk  or  cut-away 
harrow,  thus  keeping  the  surface  porous  and  preventing  wash- 
ing, and  also  keeping  up  a good  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

After  the  Trees  Begin  to  Bear. — The  principal  elements 
needed  after  the  trees  begin  to  bear,  are  plenty  of  water  and  food 
furnished  in  an  available  form  through  the  growing  season,  so 
that  when  growth  begins  in  the  spring  there  will  be  no  let  up  until 
the  season’s  growth  has  been  completed.  This  will  usually  be 
in  sufficient  time  to  allow  the  new  wood  to  ripen  up  for  winter, 
which  will,  to  a very  great  extent,  prevent  winter  killing,  and 
aid  very  materially  in  developing  the  keeping  and  other  good 
•qualities  of  the  fruit.  An  apple  that  is  only  half  grown  is  never 
so  good  in  any  respect  as  when  its  growth  has  not  been  inter- 
fered with,  and  it  has  been  allowed  to  reach  its  normal  size  and 
color.  This  has  been  very  noticeable  in  the  Experiment  Station 
orchard.  The  land  on  which  the  orchard  stands  is  underlaid  with 
gravel  for  a hundred  feet  or  more  in  depth,  and  coming  within 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  of  the  surface.  The  reservoir  beneath 
the  trees  which  should  hold  the  surplus  moisture  for  the  use  of 
the  trees  in  cases  of  emergency,  has  practically  no  bottom,  and  so 
in  seasons  of  long  continued  drouth  the  trees  suffer  very  greatly 
from  a lack  of  moisture,  and  the  fruit  often  drops  prematurely. 
Not  only  that,  but  the  annual  growth  of  wood  is  often  not  more 
than  one-half  what  it  should  be.  Under  such  conditions  there 
may  be  an  abundance  of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  but  the  trees  are 
unable  to  make  use  of  it. 

The  soil  may  lose  its  moisture  in  two  ways — by  going  down 
so  far  that  the  roots  are  unable  to  reach  it,  or  by  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  through  the  leaves  and  other 
growing  parts  of  the  plant.  It  is  well  known  that  when  soil  is 


236 

left  bare,  and  a hard  crust  is  allowed  to  form  on  the  surface, 
evaporation  goes  on  very  rapidly,  and  unless  this  is  made  good 
by  frequent  rains,  or  from  below  by  capillary  action,  it  is  only  a 
question  of  time  when  the  soil  will  become  very  dry  and  hard, 
and  the  trees  will  suffer.  It  is  also  well  known  by  those  who  have 
given  the  matter  attention,  that  from  parts  of  plants  exposed  to 
air,  water  is  constantly  passing  off  by  evaporation.  This  is,  of 
course,  much  less  in  the  older  parts  of  plants  than  in  the  new, 
especially  from  the  leaves,  which  expose  a large  surface  to  the 
atmosphere.  In  fact  this  is  the  chief  source  of  evaporation  from 
all  of  our  higher  cultivated  plants.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
evaporation  from  leaves  is  about  one-third  that  from  an  equal 
area  of  water,  or  in  other  words,  the  evaporation  from  a tree 
twenty  feet  high  and  containing  approximately  700,000  leaves, 
during  the  growing  season,  amounts  to  several  times  the  rain- 
fall upon  the  area  covered  by  its  branches.  Not  only  is  this  true, 
but  a large  amount  of  moisture  is  also  given  off  by  the  growing 
fruit.  How  necessary  then  that  this  supply  be  kept  up,  so  far  as 
possible  during  the  hot,  dry  months  of  summer,  in  order  that  the 
fruit  may  continue  to  grow  until  ripened  up  naturally.  There  are* 
two  ways  by  which  nature  may  be  assisted  verv  materially  in  con- 
serving the  surplus  moisture  which  has  been  stored  up  in  the  soil 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  viz : — (a)  by  a constant  cultiva- 
tion, and  (b)  by  mulching.  These  are  only  different  methods  of 
accomplishing  the  same  result,  and  the  one  to  be  recommended 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  conditions. 

In  some  parts  of  the  countn'  some  of  the  best  fruit  grow- 
ers advocate  and  practice  constant  cultivation,  at  least  until  the 
trees  get  so  large  as  to  make  it  impracticable,  sowing  some  kind  of 
a cover  crop  late  in  the  season  in  order  to  prevent  the  loss  of  plant 
food,  and  also  to  prevent  washing  during  the  fall  and  winter.  This 
is  undoubtedly  the  best  method  for  those  localities  as  is  indicated 
by  the  abundant  crops  produced.  But  as  has  been  stated,  in 
portions  of  Indiana,  where  the  land  is  quite  rolling,  and  where 
the  soil  washes  badly  during  heavy  rains,  the  mulch  system  is 
the  best,  in  fact  the  only  practical  method.  This  is  done  by  keep- 
ing the  soil  constantly  covered  with  some  kind  of  growing  crop. 


237 

It  may  be  grass,  or  it  may  be  clover  or  somethiing  else,  depend- 
ing upon)  the  character  of  the  soil.  (Fig.  4.) 


Fig.  4,  View  in  the  Burton  Fruit  Company’s  Orchard  at  Mitchell, 
Indiana,  where  grass  and  cow  peas  are  used  as  a mulch. 


It  should  be  remembered  here  that  there  are  two  classes  of 
cover  crops,  and  they  should  be  used  according  to  the  needs  of 
the  land.  These  are  called  the  nitrogenous  and  the  non-nitrog- 
enons  plants.  To  the  first  class  belong  the  clovers,  vetches,  cow 
peas,  soy  beans;  those  plants  which  gather  free  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  store  it  up  in  the  soil  by  means  of  the  little  nodules  on  the 
roots.  The  non-nitrogeneous  class  consists  of  such  plants  as  rye, 
oats,  barley,  orchard  grass,  and  in  fact  all  of  the  grasses  proper. 
These  plants  add  humus  to  the  soil  when  plowed  under  and  as- 
sist in  making  available  the  plant  food  already  within  the  soil. 
In  order  to  fletermine  which  of  these  cro])s  is  needed  the  orch- 


238 

ardist  has  only  to  consult  his  trees,  just  as  the  stockman  consults 
his  cattle.  If  the  foliage  has  taken  on  a sickly  color,  and  the 
branches  are  not  making  from  one  to  two  feet  of  growth  each 
season,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  soil  is  deficient  in  nitrogen,  and 
this  may  be  obtained  in  the  cheapest  possible  way  by  raising  one 
of  the  nitrogenous  crops  and  plowing  it  under.  On  the  other 
hand  if  the  trees  are  making  too  much  growth  and  too  little  fruit, 
sow  one  of  the  non-nitrogenous  plants,  such  as  oats,  rye  or  grass 
as  a cover  crop,  and  add  300  to  500  pounds  each  of  murite  of 
potash  and  ground  bone  or  acid  phosphate,  which  will  supply 
the  necessary  materials  which  go  to  make  up  the  fruit.  A ton 
per  acre  of  unleached  hard  wood  ashes  sown  broadcast  will 
furnish  a goodly  supply  of  potash.  One  thing  to  be  remembered, 
where  the  mulch  system  is  practiced,  is  that  it  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary that  the  crop  be  left  on  the  ground,  not  cut  and  taken  off 
for  fodder  with  nothing  left  to  replace  it.  This  is  simply  robbing 
the  trees  of  both  moisture  and  mineral  elements  to  feed  the  stock. 
There  are  several  orchardists  in  this  state  who  have  practiced 
the  grass  mulch  system  for  years,  and  who  have  been  remarka- 
bly successful ; and  there  are  others  who  have  tried  it  with  very 
indifferent  success.  Doubtless  local  conditions  have  much  to 
do  with  the  success  or  failure  of  the  method. 

Pruning. — Dr.  Lindley  once  said : ‘Tf  well  directed,  pruning 

is  one  of  the  most  useful,  and  if  ill  directed  it  is  among  the  most 
mischievous  operations  that  can  take  place  on  a plant.”  The 
beginner  is  more  liable  to  prune  too  much  than  too  little.  He  is 
also  liable  to  wait  too  long  before  beginning  the  shaping  of  the 
top.  This  will  most  likely  result  in  too  severe  pruning  when  he 
does  begin,  making  it  necessary  to  cut  off  large  branches  that 
should  have  been  cut  off  when  they  were  small.  The  time  for  the 
first  pruning  is  while  the  tree  is  still  in  the  nursery  row,  and  not 
morel  than  two  years  old.  The  shaping  of  the  top  is  done  when 
the  tree  is  transplanted  into  the  orchard.  This  is  the  time  to  de- 
cide whether  a high  or  a low  top  is  wanted,  and  to  prune^  accord- 
ingly. If  constant  cultivation  is  to  be  practiced,  the  tops  must  not 
be  started  too  low,  but  if  the  mulch  system  is  to  prevail  a rather 
low  top  is  better.  The  amount  of  thinning  which  the  top  should 
receive  depends  largely  on  climatic  peculiarities.  In  sections  of 


239 

the  country  where  the  season  is  short  and  consequently  the 
amount  of  sunlight  is  much  less  than  in  other  portions,  a dif- 
ferent method  must  be  employed.  Prof.  Card,  of  Rhode  Island, 
says  on  this  subject:  “The  Eastern  grower  finds  it  nec- 

essary to  thin  his  trees  and  admit  light  and  air  to  pro- 
duce fruit  of  high  color  and  good  flavor.  The  Western  man, 
however,  finds  that  under  his  conditions  of  intense  sunlight  and 
low  humidity,  fruit  will  develop  color  regardless  of  such  condi- 
tions. The  Eastern  grower,  if  he  neglects  this,  may  find  his 
fruit  suffering  from  attacks  of  fungous  diseases,  but  in  general, 
fungi  are  less  troublesome  in  the  drier  climate  of  the  plain,  so  this 
reason  loses  its  force.”  In  general  the  amount  of  thinning  out 
required  will  depend  very  largely  upon  the  variety ; but  one  thing 
IS  certain  in  this  state,  we  can  not  have  highly  colored  fruit  without 
an  abundance  of  air  and  sunlight. 

Objects  of  Pruning. — Trees  are  pruned  chiefly  for  some  or 
all  of  the  following  reasons:  To  check  the  growth  of  the  top  in 
certain  directions ; to  prevent  the  limbs  from  crowding ; to  in- 
duce fruitfulness,  and  to  prevent  overbearing. 

Time  to  Prune. — The  man  that  lives  with  his  trees  will  us- 
ually follow  the  old  rule  and  prune  whenever  his  knife  is  sharp ; 
which  simply  means  that  whenever  he  finds  a branch  growing  in 
the  wrong  place,  he  at  once  takes  it  off  while  it  Is  yet  small  and 
while  it  will  do  the  least, injury  to  the  tree.  For  the  general  prun- 
ing which  usually  comes  but  once  a year,  the  best  time  is  in  the 
spring  about  the  time  that  growth  begins  and  the  leaves  are*  be- 
ginning to  unfold.  At  this  time  all  wounds  will  heal  over  quickly, 
and  the  growth  will  proceed  rapidly.  If  large  limbs  are  to  be  re- 
moved or  severe  heading  back  is  made,  it  should  be  done  while 
the  tree  is  perfectly  dormant,  preferably  late  in  the  fall.  Summer 
pruning  is  often  practiced  in  order  to  promote  fruit  bearing  in- 
stead of  too  much  growth.  Much  summer  pruning,  however, 
should  be  done  with  some  caution,  as  it  tends  to  reduce  the  vigor 
of  the  tree.  The  following  are  good  rules  to  follow:  Prune  so 

as  to  avoid  bad  crotches ; make  the  top  as  even  as  possible ; avoid 
cutting  off  large  branches  as  much  as  possible,  and  cut  off  the 
branches  close  to  the  tree  so  that  the  wounds  may  heal  over 
quickly.  Strive  to  encourage  fruit  spurs  to  form  well  down  on 


240 


the  branches  so  as  to  distribute  the  load  throughout  the  top  as 
much  as  possible.  Varieties  differ  very  much  in  this  respect. 
Grimes  naturally  distributes  its  fruit  throughout  the  top  and  con- 
sequently is  able  to  carry  a heavy  load  without  breaking  down, 
while  others  carry  their  entire  load  near  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
The  observing  grower  will  soon  learn  these  peculiarities. 

The  following  from  Downing  should  be  committed  to  mem- 
orv  by  every  orchardist : ‘ Every  fruit  tree  grown  in  the  open  air 
should  be  allowed  to  take  its  natural  form,,  the  efforts  of  the  pruner 
going  no  farther  than  to  take  out  all  weak  and  crowded  branches. 
All  pruning  of  large  branches  in  healthy  trees  should  be  avoided, 
by  examining  them  every  season  and  taking  out  superfluous 
shoots  while  small.” 

Thinning. — The  importance  of  thinning  apples  is  not  well 
understood,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  poor  qualitv  of  much  of  the 
fruit  that  is  put  upon  the  market.  Not  one  farmer  in  a hundred 
ever  thinks  of  thinning  his  apples  except  that  which  is  caused  by 
an  occasional  pruning. 

There  are  two  principal  reasons  why  apples  as  well  as  other 
kinds  of  fruit  should  be  thinned  if  the  trees  are  too  heavily  loaded, 
(i)  The  effect  which  it  has  upon  the  tree,  and  (2)’  the  effect  pro- 
duced upon  th^  fruit.  Seed  production  is  a very  exhaustive  process  up- 
on the  plant.  Other  prosesses,  such  as  foliage,  the  green  shoots, 
etc.,  assist  in  the  assimilation  of  plant  food,  but  the  seed  assimi- 
lates practically  no  food.  On  the  other  hand,  it  removes  a large 
amount  of  assimilated  food  from  other  parts  of  the  plant,  which 
it  stores  up  as  a reserve  supply  for  the  young  embryo.  The 
florist  knows  that  if  he  allows  his  sweet  peasi  or  other  flowering 
plants  to  ripen  their  seeds,  the  plants  will  soon  die,  consequently 
the  flowers  are  picked  almost  as  soon  as  open.  The  vegetable 
gardener  is  aware  that  if  so  much  as  one  cucumber  on  a vine  is 
alowed  to  ripen  its  seeds,  the  life  of  that  vine  is  considerably  short- 
ened ; hence  the  fruits  are  picked  while  green.  The  same  rule 
will  hold  good  with  orchard  fruits.  An  apple  tree  that  is  allowed 
to  overbear  is  injured  more  or  less  for  the  remainder  of  its  natural 
life.  Everybody  knows  that  the  fruit  on  such  a tree  is  never  so 
large  and  fine  looking,  nor  of  as  good  quality  as  it  is  on  a tree 
that  bears  but  a moderate  crop.  There  are  just  about  as  many 


241 


seeds  in  a small  apple  as  there  are  in  a large  one  of  the  same 
variety.  In  other  words  it  exhausts  a tree  far  more  to  produce 
a bushel  of  small  apples  than  it  does  to  produce  a bushel  of  large 
ones.  This  is  another  reason  why  so  many  trees  that  are  in- 
clined to  bear  heavy  crops,  are  so  short-lived.  The  Wagener  ap- 
ple, which  is  prized  so  highly  in  the  East,  will  often  begin  bearing 
the  second  year  after  planting,  and  if  allowed  to  have  its  own 
way  will  soon  bear  itself  to  death.  The  Wealthy  often  bears  in 
the  nursery  row,  and  yet  even  in  its  home  state  (Minnesota)  it 
is  a very  short-lived  tree.  Much  of  this  trouble  can  be  avoided 
by  preventing  it  from  bearing  until  it  has  attained  sufficient  age 
and  then  by  properly  thinning  the  fruit.  It  has  come  to  be  ac- 
cepted by  many  as  a law  of  nature  for  most  trees  to  bear  only 
each  alternate  season,  when  the  fact  is  they  are  naturally  annual 
bearers,  but  the  trees  have  become  so  much  exhausted  of  their 
stored-up  food  supply  it  requires  a year  in  order  to  recuperate 
sufficiently  to  be  able  to  form  fruit  buds  for  the  succeeding  crop. 
By  properly  thinning  the  fruit,  most  varieties  can  be  induced  to 
bear  every  year,  provided  other  conditions  are  favorable. 

Time  for  Thinning. — This  should  be  done  as  early  as  pos- 
sible after  it  can  be  determined  how  large  a crop  the  tree  is  likely 
to  carry.  Many  of  the  young  fruits  will  drop  ofo  their  own  accord, 
which  is  due  to  various  causes,  one  of  which  is  a lack  of  vitality 
in  the  tree  owing  to  previous  heavy  crops.  Another  is  a lack  of 
pollen,  which  may  be  due  to  the  weather  and  cnsequent  scarcity 
of  insects.  The  proper  amount  of  thinning  will  depend  upon  var- 
ious conditions,  such  as  age  of  the  tree,  abundance  of  the  crop, 
fertility  of  the  soil,  water  supply,  amount  of  pruning,  etc.,  and 
must  be  determined  very  largely  by  judgment  and  experience. 

Picking  and  Marketing  Apples. — When  the  orchard  is  lo- 
cated near  a good  market  town,  or  when  the  shipping  facilities 
are  of  the  best,  it  will  often  pay  well  to  plant  a goodly  number 
of  trees  of  the  summer  and  early  fall  varieties ; but  unless  this  is 
the  case  fall  and  winter  varieties  will  usually  pay  best.  Summer 
apples  should  be  left  on  the  trees  until  some  of  them  are  ripe, 
that  is,  until  .some  specimens,  begin  to  get  soft,  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  flavor,  and  so>  of  course  they  should  not  he  expected)  to 
keep  for  a very  long  time,  unless  put  into  cold  storage.  The 


242 

stems  should  not  be  pulled  out  when  picked,  and  the  fruit  should 
be  handled  as  carefully  as  eggs  are  handled  while  being  packed 
for  market.  Any  breaking  of  the  skin,  or  bruising  the  flesh  will 
very  materially  hasten  the  time  of  decay.  They  should  be  carefully 
sorted,  and  marketed  in  boxes  or  baskets  holding  not  more  than 
one-half  bushel,  so  that  they  can  be  sold  without  breaking  the 
package.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  fruit  is  sold  in  the 
larger  cities  where  very  many  people  buy  only  a few  apples  at 
one  time.  And  as  a general  rule,  the  neater  the  package  and 
the  more  uniform  the  fruit  throughout  the  package,  the  more 
readily  they  will  sell. 

Fall  and  Winter  Varieties  should  be  packed  when  mature 


Fig.  5 Shows  a bushel  box  of  No.  1,  Rome  Beauty. 

but  not  ripe.  An  apple  is  mature  when  the  stem  will  separate 
readily  from  the  branch  as  it  is  given  a little  twist.  At  this  time 
the  seeds  are  beginning  to  take  on  their  brown  color,  indicating 
that  the  period  of  ripeness  is  approaching.  If  handled  in  the 


243 

same  manner  as  indicated  for  summer  fruit,  but  packed  in  barrels 
or  bushel  boxes  and  stored  at  once  in  a cool  place,  they  can  be 
held  very  nicely  for  a later  market. 

Whatever  the  kind  of  package  used,  whether  it  be  barrel  or 
box,  let  it  be  new  and  of  the  regulation  size,  and  let  the  fruit  be 
so  graded  that  it  will  be  uniform  from  top  to  bottom.  Remem- 
ber that  a man’s  reputation  is  worth  more  than  a few  cents  made 
on  a snide  barrel  of  apples.  Figs.  5 and  6 show  two  boxes  of 
Rome  Beauty  apples  properly  graded  and  packed.  Fig.  5 contains 
number  “ones,”  and  Fig.  6 contains  “seconds.”  The  box  of  “seconds” 
holds,  in  this  case,  just  twice  as  many  apples  as  the  box  of  number 
“ones,”  and  yet  the  latter  will  bring  at  least  one-third  higher  price 
in  the  market  than  the  other. 


Fig.  6 Shows  a bushel  box  of  “Seconds”  of  the  same  variety. 

Unfortunately  nearly  every  maker  of  fruit  packages  seems  to 
have  adopted  a size,  of  his  own-  so  that  we  have  no  uniformity  in 
this  matter  as  we  should.  Fig.  5 shows  a bushel  box  made  in  Illi- 


244 

nois,  which  measures  i6}i  inches  in  length,  ii  inches  in  depth 
and  10%  inches  in  width,  inside  measure,  which  contains  1980.69- 
cubic  inches.  Another  box  manufactured  in  ^Michigan,  is  21% 
xi3%x7%  = 2183.46-  cubic  inches.  A standard  bushel  contains 
2150.42  cubic  inches.  It  will  he  seen  that  the  first  one  falls  short 
of  a bushel,  while  the  second  slightly  overruns.  This  is  offset, 
however,  by  a cross  piece  through  the  center  of  the  box  for  the 
purpose  of  stiffening  it. 

The  following  standard  sizes  for  both  packages  and  fruit,  was 
adopted  by  the  American  Apple  Growers  Congress  in  IQ03 : 

“Resolved,  That  this  congress  adopt  as  a standard  barrel  for 
apples, — a barrel  which  is  of  the  capacity  of  three  bushels,  which 
is  17%  inches  in  diameter  of  head,  28%  inches  length  of  stave, 
and  bulge  not  less  than  64  inches  in  circumference, .outside  meas- 
urement. 

“A  standard  bushel  box  shall  be  ii%xii%x20%  inches,  in- 
side measurements ; sides  should  not  be  less  than  % to  % inches 
thick  for  domestic  use  and  not  less  than  % inches  for  export, 
ends  or  heads  not  less  than  % inches  thick.” 

A number  one  apple  shall  not  be  less  than  2%  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  shall  include  such  varieties  as  Ben  Davis  Willow- 
twig,  Baldwin,  Greening,  and  other  varieties  kindred  in  size, — 
and  varieties  such  as:  Romanite,  Russet,  Winesap,  Jonathan, 

^lissouri  Pippin  and  other  varieties  kindred  in  size  shall  not  be 
less  than  2%  inches  in  diameter,  and  further,  a number  one  apple 
shall  be  practically  free  from  the  action  of  worms,  and  not  over 
10  per  cent,  of  the  apples  affected  by  defacement  of  surface ; shall 
be  hand  picked  from  the  trees  and  not  bruised  or  skin  broken ; 
shall  be  of  a bright  and  normal  color  and  shapely. 

Number  two  apples  may  be  % inch  less  in  diameter  than 
number  one  apples  and  not  over  20  per  cent,  of  the  apples  affected 
by  defacement  of  surface,  by  scab,  dry  rot,  worms  or  other  de- 
fects ; shall  be  hand  picked  from  the  trees  and  not  bruised  or  skin 
broken ; shall  be  of  a bright  and  normal  color  and  shapely. 

When  apples  are  marketed  in  packages  of  either  a barrel  or 
box  they  must  be  well  faced  and  carefully  packed,  well  settled 
and  sufficiently  full  to  keep  them  from  shaking  in  packages  in 


245 

handling,  and  shall  be  in  sound  barrels  or  boxes,  sides  of  boxes 
and  heads  of  barrels  securely  nailed.” 

Storing. — A very  satisfactory  place  for  storing  apples  is  an 
outdoor  cellar,  one  that  is  entirely  separated  from  the  dwelling. 
If  the  orchard  is  situated  on  a hillside  it  is  a very  easy  matter  to 
construct  a cellar  that  will  keep  apples  in  good  condition  all  win- 
ter. When  the  apples  are  picked  the  days  are  usually  warm  and 
the  nights  comparatively  cool.  The  cellar  should,  therefore,  be 
constructed  so  as  to  admit  of  thorough  ventilation  so  that  it  may 
be  opened  during  the  night,  admitting  the  cool  air,  and  closed 
during  the  day  so  as  to  exclude  the  warmer  air.  Whether  the 
temperature  approaches  the  freezing  point  in  the  cellar  or  not, 
it  should  be  kept  as  uniform  as  possible. 

Our  experience  with  Grimes’  Golden  during  the  past  few 
years  indicates  very  clearly  that  it  will  not  do  to  put  this  variety 
into  a temperature  approaching  the  freezing  point  until  the  fruit 
has  taken  on  its  bright,  golden  color.  This  will  usually  be  some 
time  after  the  picking  season.  It  should  be  placed  in  a cool  place 
direct  from  the  tree  and  kept  there  for  a few  weeks  until  it  has 
had  time  to  develop  its  best  flavor  and  color,  when  it  may  be 
placed  in  cold  storage  and  kept  until  the  following  summer. 

The  apple  grower  who  visited  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  the 
past  summer,  especially  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer, 
doubtless  was  surprised  at  the  fine  condition  in  which  most  of 
the  apples  were  found  when  taken  from  the  cold  storage  houses. 
They  were  not  all  so,  but  by  far,  the  larger  portion  of  them  came 
out  of  cold  storage  seemingly  in  as  fine  condition  as  when  they 
went  in,  so  that  many  of  the  apples  were  able  to  “hold  up”  for  two 
months  or  more  after  being  placed  upon  the  tables.  This  was  due, 
principally,  to  two  causes,  viz : Picking  at  the  right  time,  and 

careful  handling  and  packing. 

The  successful  keeping  of  apples  in  cold  storage  has  not  been 
practiced  but  about  fifteen  years,  and  it  has  been  only  within  the 
last  four  or  five  years)  that  this  method  may  be  said  to  have  been 
reduced  to  a science.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  has  recently  published  a Bulletin*  on  ’’The  Apple  in 
Cold  Storage,”  which  gives  a large  amount  of  valuable  information 


246 


along  this  line,  and  those  who  are  interested  in  this  particular  branch 
of  the  industry,  are  advised  to  send  to  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture for  this  bulletin. 

Use  of  the  Score  Card  in  Judging  Apples  at  Fairs. 

Those  who  have  been  called  upon  to  judge  apples  at  fairs 
have  doubtless  felt  the  need  of  some  uniform  system  of  marking 
such  as  is  sometimes  used  in  the  judging  of  live  stock.  No  man 
can  pass  on  fifteen  or  twenty  entries  of  fruit,  keeping  in  mind  the 
good  and  bad  points  of  each  while  he  is  selecting  the  first  and  sec- 
ond best  plates,  except  in  a general  way.  The  following  score  card, 
which  is  essentially  the  same  as  was  used  with  such  good  results 
in  the  Horticultural  Department  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  will 
enable  one  to  go  over  an  unlimited  number  of  entries,  marking 
each  one  as  he  goes,  and  when  he  is  through  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  tell  which  has  scored  the  highest  number  of  points.  By  this 
method  each  entry  is  placed  upon  its  own  merits. 


Score  Card  for  Use  at  County  or  State  Fairs. 
Apples. 

Class No.  of  Entry.. 


POINTS  NOTED 

Max. 

Score 

Score 

Awd. 

Remarks 

Size  of  exhibit 

20 

Size  of  fruit 

15 

Color 

15 

Form 

15 

Qualit3" 

15 

Freedom  from  blemishes.  . 

20 

Total 

: 100 

Date Name  of  Judg-e 


In  case  of  single  plates  only,  the  first  score  may  be  omitted, 
leaving  a total  of  80  points. 


247 


AN  EXPERIMENT. 

t Influence  of  the  Stock  Upon  the  Graft. — The  question  is 
often  asked  as  to  whether  the  quality  of  the  fruit  of  a graft  is 
influenced  in  any  way  by  the  stock  upon  which  it  is  grafted?  If 
this  were  true,  then  the  theory  of  grafting  one  variety  upon  an- 
other in  order  to  multiply  or  to  preserve  the  identity  of  a variety, 
is  false.  For  example,  we  graft  an  Angouleme  pear  upon  a quince 
root,  the  result  is  a dwarf  tree,  but  the  fruit  is  still  a pear,  and  not 
only  that,  but  it  is  a genuine  Angouleme  pear.  More  than  this,  the 
wood  above  the  point  of  union  with  the  quince  is  pear  wood,  and 
that  below  that  point  is  quince.  The  peach  is  budded  upon  plum 
stock,  but  the  fruit  is  peach,  and  the  tree  is  peach  wood.  Or  graft 
the  Northern  Spy  apple  upon  a seedling,  or  any  number  of  seed- 
ling roots,  all  different,  and  the  result  is  Northern  Spy  fruit,  as 
well  as  Northern  Spy  wood.  We  naturally  expect  that  to  be  true, 
because  the  food  is  assimilated  by  the  leaves  of  the  scion.  But 
supposing  the  scion  was  deprived  of  its  leaves,  then  what  ? 

An  interesting  experiment  to  determine  this  point  has  been 
in  progress  for  some  years,  conducted  by  the  manager  of  the  Ex- 
perimental orchard  in  Lawrence  county,  Mr.  Joe  A.  Burton,  of 
Mitchell,  Ind.  Scions  of  the  Yellow  Transparent  apple  were  in- 
serted into  branches  of  the  Wild  Crab.  After  fruit  spurs  were 
formed  all  leaves  were  removed  from  the  graft  and  none  were  al- 
lowed to  form  during  the  season,  so  that  all  of  the  sap  was  elab- 
orated by  the  leaves  of  the  Wild  Crab.  At  the  same  time  another 
scion  of  the  same  Yellow  Transparent  tree  was  inserted  into  a 
twig  of  the  same  branch  and  allowed  to  form  its  own  leaves.  Both 
of  these  grafts  have  borne  fruit  the  past  season,  which  was  tested 
by  myself  and  others,  and  the  general  verdict  was  that  no  dif- 
ference, either  in  size,  color  or  flavor  could  be  detected.  In  both 
instances  the  fruit  was  clearly  Yellow  Transparent. 

This  experiment  woukl  seem  to  indicate  that  it  makes  no 
difference  where  the  sap  comes  from,  the  fruit  will  remain  true 
to  its  kind. 


248 

Keep  the  Trees  Free  from  the  Attacks  of  Insects  and  Fungi. 

One  of  the  elements  necessary  in  the  production  of  a strong, 
vigorous  tree,  is  a healthy  foliage,  especially  during  the  first  few 
months  of  summer  when  the  tree  is  making  most  of  its  growth. 
This  is  the  season  when  insects  and  fungi  begin  their  destructive 
work. 

As  soon  as  the  trees  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  they  are  ex- 
posed to  the  attacks  of  borers  and  leaf-eating  insects,  as  well  as 
the  parasitic  fungi  which  feed  upon  the  foliage.  The  up-to-date 
orchardist  will,  therefore,  provide  himself  with  a first-class  spray 
pump  and  at  once  prepare  for  these  attacks.  For  the  borers,  a 
carbolic-soap  mixture  will  be  as  useful  as  anything.  This  is  made 
by  adding  a sufficient  quantity  of  rain  water  to  ordinary  soft  soap 
so  that  it  may  be  readily  spread  on  the  tree  with  a brush.  To 
five  gallons  of  this  mixture  add  five  ounces  of  crude  carbolic  acid 
and  mix.  Two  or  three  applications  during  the  summer,  begin- 
ning the  latter  part  of  May,  will  prevent  the  attacks  of  these  insects. 

For  leaf  eating  insects,  Paris  green  may  be  used  (4  or  5 
ounces  to  50  gallons  of  water)  or  what  is  still  better,  boil  in  the 
open  air  one  pound  of  white  arsenic  and  four  pounds  of  sal-soda 
with  one  gallon  of  water  until  dissolved.  Keep  this  as  a “stock 
mixture.”  When  wanted  for  use,  slack  three  pounds  of  fresh  lime 
and  after  straining  it  add  it  to  forty  gallonsi  of  water.  Then  add 
one  pint  of  the  stock  mixture  and  stir  thoroughly. 

We  have  used  “Disparine,”  an  insecticide  made  by  the 
Bowker  Insecticide  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  with  good  results,  using 
three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water;  but  it  is  more  expensive 
than  Paris  green,  and  many  claim  that  the  results  are  no  more 
satisfactory. 

Codling  Moth. — As  the  trees  come  into  bearing  one  of  the 
first  insects  to  attack  the  young  fruit  is  the  Codling  Moth,  (Carpo- 
capsa  pomonella).  This  is  a small  moth,  seldom  seen,  which 
makes  its  appearance  about  the  time  the  apple  trees  are  in  blos- 
som. As  the  bloom  falls  and  the  young  apples  begin  to  form  the 
female  moth  deposits  her  eggs  on  both  the  foliage  and  young 


^Bureau  of  Plant  Industry — Bulletin  No.  48. 


249 

apples.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  and  the  young  larvae  upon  the  fruit 
make  their  way  to  the  blossom  end  where  they  eat  their  way  into 
the  apple,  remaining  there  until  full  grown,  when  they  eat  thei^ 
way  out  and  at  once  look  for  a suitable  place  to  pupate,  either 
under  a piece  of  bark  or  rubbish  at  the  base  of  the  tree. 

Just  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  then,  is  the  time  to  begin 
spraying.  At  this  time  the  young  apples  are  standing  with  their 
heads  up,  and  the  calyx  is  open  so  that  a tiny  drop  of  the  poisoned 
liquid  may  easily  lodge  therein,  and  as  the  young  larva  begins 
to  eat  his  way  into  the  apple  he  necessarily  getsi  some  of  the  poi- 
son. As  the  eggs  are  not  all  laid  at  the  same  time,  a second  and 
third  spraying  at  intervals  of  ten  days  will  be  in  order.  If  rain 
intervenes  an  additional  spraying  may  be  necessary.  If  these 
early  sprayings  have  been  thoroughly  done,  there  will  not  be 
much  trouble  from  the  second  brood,  which  comes  later  in  the 
summer,  neither  will  the  Canker  worm  or  other  leaf-eating  in- 
sects do  much  injury. 

The  Apple  Scab  is  more  or  less  abundant  every  year,  often 
doing  serious  injury  to  both  fruit  and  foliage.  This  is  best  con- 
trolled by  the  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  Use  this  first  just  as 
the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell  in]  the  spring;  and  if  Paris  green 
is  used  for  thei  later  sprayings  it  should  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  makes  one  of  the  best  combina- 
tion fungicides  and  insecticides  known. 

The  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  by  dissolving  five  pounds  of 
copper-sulfate  and  five  pounds  of  fresh  lime  in  separate  vessels, 
and  mixing  them  together  in  50  gallons  of  water,  after  the  lime 
has  been  thoroughly  strained. 

Scale  Insects. — There  are  a number  of  species  of  scale  in- 
sects which  infest  the  apple  trees  as  well  as  many  other  kinds  of 
fruit  and  ornamental  plants,  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  but  of  all 
those  known  to  the  entomologist  at  the  present  time,  the  San 
Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  pernicious,)  (Fig.  7),  is  the  most  to  be 
dreaded,  on  account  of  its  destructive  character,  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  propagates,  and  the  difficulty  which  one  experiences  in 
trying  to  eradicate  it  when  it  once  becomes  established. 


250 

Our  experiments  and  observations  during  the  past  few  years 
have  demonstrated  two  important  facts  concerning  this  insect. 
First,  that  it  is  more  widely  spread  throughout  this  state  than  is 
generally  supposed  by  orchardists ; secondly,  that  by  the  use  of 
proper  materials  in  the  hands  of  a competent  man,  it  may  be  prac- 
tically cleaned  out  of  an  orchard  in  a single  season,  if  the  trees 
are  not  too  far  gone  when  found. 

Numerous  instances  have  been  brought  to  my  attention  the 
past  year  of  infested  orchards  in  localities  where  it  had  not  been 


F:g.  7.  A branch  infested  with  the  San  Jose  scale. 

known  before,  so  that  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  been  located 
in  forty  different  counties  in  this  state. 

It  is  found  on  nearly  or  quite  all  species  of  fruit  trees,  and 
numerous  shade  and  forest  trees  as  well.  An  Osage  orange 
hedge  around  an  infested  orchard  makes  an  admirable  breeding 
place  for  the  insect,  and  one  from  which  it  would  be  almost  impos- 
sible to  eradicate  it  except  by  fire.  In  looking  for  it  most  people 
will  pass  it  by  unnoticed  on  account  of  its  minute  size  and  unat- 
tractive appearance.  The  shape  of  the  female,  which  is  wingless, 
is  nearly  circular  in  outline,  while  the  adult  male  is  more  elon- 
gated and  provided  with  wings.  The  female  scale  is  sharply  con- 
vex in  the  center.  This  last  character  will  help  one  to  distinguish 
it  from  most  of  the  more  common  species.  Another  distinguish- 
ing character  is  found  in  the  reddish  discoloration  of  the  bark 
immediately  surrounding  and  underneath  the  scale.  After  the  tree 
lias  become  entirely  coated  with  the  scales  it  presents  a dirty, 
greyish  color.  At  this  stage  if  the  tree  is  bearing  fruit,  many  of 
the  apples  will  be  covered  with  the  scales  and  show  the  character- 


251 


istic  little  reddish-grey  spots,  (See  Fig.  8),  which  renders  them 
entirely  unfit  for  market,  and  very  unattractive  for  home  con- 
sumption. 

Remedies. — It  is  needess  to  say  that  where  trees  have  been 
infested  so  long  as  to  be  practically  dead  when  discovered,  the 
only  remedy  for  them  is  the  ax  and  fire.  But  a tree  may  be  pretty 


Fjo.  8.  Apples  infested  with  the  San  Jose  scale. 

thoroughly  infested  by  the  scale,  and  yet  be  treated  so  as  to  re- 
store it  to  its  normal  vitality  again.  So  it  becomes  a very  import- 
ant matter  with  every  owner  of  an  orchard  or  even  of  a city  lot, 
if  situated  anywhere  near  an  infested  tree,  to  see  to  it  that  the 
evil  is  remedied  as  soon  as  possible.  The  law  makes  this  obliga- 
tory upon  every  owner  of  infested  trees  or  orchards. 

Section  8,  of  the  Nursery  Inspection  law,  reads  as  follows: 
Whenever  a nurseryman,  fruit  grower,  or  agriculturalist,  in  this 
state  shall  know  or  have  good  reasons  to  believe  that  his  trees, 
shrubs,  vines  or  plants  are  affected  with  San  Jose  scale,  yellows, 
rosette,  or  other  destructive  insects  or  fungus  enemies,  he  shall 


252 


have  the  privilege,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to  notify  the  State  En- 
tomologist, who  shall  proceed  in  person  or  by  his  assistant,  to 
examine  the  same  without  delay,  and  advise  the  proper  remedies 
for  the  destruction  of  such  insect  or  fungus  enemies  that  may  be 
present.  In  case  the  owner  or  owners,  or  persons  in  control  ot 
said  affected  trees,  shrubs,  vines  or  other  plants  do  not  apply  the 
proper  remedies  recommended  by  the  said  State  Entomologist, 
within  a certain  specified  time,  said  owner  or  owners,  or  persons  in 
control  of,  shall  be  liable  to  a fine  of  not  more  than  twenty-five 
dollars  ($25)  nor  less  than  ten  dollars  ($10)  and  costs,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  court,  for  every  such  offense,  the  fine  to  be  recovera- 
ble in  the  same  manner  as  that  provided  for  in  section  5 of  this 
act : Provided,  That  in  case  of  an  objection  to  the  findings  of  the 
State  Entomologist  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  Circuit  Court 
of  the  proper  county  whose  decision  shall  be  final ; said  appeal 
must  be  taken  within  three  days,  and  shall  operate  as  a stay  of 
proceedings  until  it  is  heard  and  decided. 

Summer  Treatment. — The  young  insects  begin  to  make  their  ap- 
pearance as  soon  as  warm  weather  is  well  under  way,  and  are  then 
active,  crawling  about  on  the  branches,  looking  to  the  naked  eye 
like  very  minute  particles  of  orange-colored  dust  moving  about. 

At  this  stage  they  are  easily  destroyed  by  contact  poisons, 
such  as  kerosene  emulsion  or  whale  oil  soap.  But  owing  to  the 
dense  foliage  on  the  trees  at  this  time,  many  of  the  insects  are 
liable  to  escape,  unless  the  work  is  thoroughly  done.  The  whale 
oil  soap  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  the  soap  in 
one  gallon  of  water.  Apply  in  a fine  spray  so  as  to  moisten  every 
part  of  the  tree.  Two  or  three  applications  should  be  made  at 
intervals  of  ten  days,  beginning  with  the  first  of  June. 

Twenty  per  cent,  kerosene  emulsion  made  with  soap  and  kero- 
sene oil,  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  whale  oil  soap  so- 
lution will  give  good  results  as  a summer  wash. 

Winter  Treatment. — Late  fall  or  winter  is  the  best  time  to 
apply  remedies  for  this  scale,  because  the  foliage  is  gone  and  the 
material  can  be  used  much  stronger.  The  most  practical  treat- 
ment for  wdnter  use  is  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  wash.  This  treat- 
ment is  used  only  when  the  trees  are  dormant,  and  preferably  in 


253 


late  fall  and  in  the  spring  just  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell. 

There  are  two  formulas  in  common  use.  One  is  called  the 
“California  Wash,”  and  the  other  is  the  “Oregon  Wash.”  The 
first  is  made  of  50  pounds  of  fresh  lime,  50  pounds  of  ground  sul- 
phur and  50  pounds  of  salt.  Slack  the  lime  in  a little  hot  water, 
gradually  adding  the  sulphur,  stirring  constantly,  and  boil  one 
hour.  Then  add  the  salt  and  boil  fifteen  minutes  longer,  strain,  di- 
lute with  hot  water  to  make  150  gallons  and  apply  immediately. 

The  “Oregon  Wash”  is  made  in  the  same  manner,  except  the 
salt  is  replaced  by  4 pounds  of  copper  sulphate.  A good  iron  or 
brass  barrel  pump,  without  copper  or  leather,  is  recommended  for 
this  purpose.  Always  thoroughly  clean  the  pump  and  hose  after 
using,  by  the  use  of  clear  water,  else  they  will  soon  become 
clogged. 

Caution. — If  any  open  sores  exist  on  the  hands  protect  them 
with  rubber  gloves.  Keep  the  horses  blanketed  while  the  spray- 
ing is  in  progress.  See  that  every  part  of  the  tree  is  covered  with 
the  mixture.  Remember  that  everything  must  be  thoroughly 
done  from  start  to  finish  in  order  to'  secure  the  best  results. 

The  Oyster  Shell  Bark-louse  (Mytilaspis  pomoriim,)  Fig.  9, 
is  a very  common  form  of  scale.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  female  scale  resembles  somewhat  closely  the  oyster  shell. 


Fig.  9.  A branch  infested  with  the  Oyster-shell  Bark-louse. 

It  is  more  or  less  common  on  apple  and  other  fruit  trees,  and 
while  it  sometimes  becomes  numerous  enough  to  seriously  affect 
the  vitality  of  the  tree,  yet  I have  never  known  of  its  killing  a tree. 

The  Scurfy  Bark-louse  (Chionaspis  furfiiriis) . — This  is  a na- 
tive species,  more  widely  distributed  than  most  of  the  scale  insects. 
The  scale  is  large  enough  to  be  recognized  by  the  naked  eye  (Fig. 
10.)  The  female  scale,  shown  enlarged  on  the  right,  is  broad  at 


254 


Fig.  10.  Showing  the  Scrufy  scale — la,  male  scale;  lb,  the  winged  male 
insect;  Ic,  the  female  scale,  all  enlarged;  1,  an  infested  branch, 
natural  size. 


one  end,  tapering  towards  the  other  upon  which  is  a little  brown- 
ish scale.  The  male  scale,  shown  at  the  left,  is  more  elongated, 
and  much  smaller  than  the  female. 

The  female  is  wingless  and  seldom  travels  any  great  distance. 
In  neglected  orchards  this  scale  often  becomes  a serious  pest, 
but  when  the  orchard  is  thoroughly  sprayed  and  cared  for  in  other 
ways  it  seldom  causes  any  trouble.  The  same  remedies  as  rec- 
ommended for  the  San  Jose  scale  will  apply  here. 

Finally. — Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  good  fruit. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BUI.LETIN  No.  103.  VOL.  XII. 
March,  1905. 


Rapid  Method  of  Removing  Smut  from  Seed  Oats 


PuDllshed  liy  \U  Slallon: 
LAFAYETTK,  INDIANA, 
U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


WiiyiyiAM  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Addison  C.  Harris,  _ - - - Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Sylvester  Johnson,  _ _ . _ Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Beam,  -----  Spencer,  Owen  Co. 
Job  H.  VanNatta,  - - - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  - . - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co 

Charles  Major,  - - . - Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arville  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.,  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  Van  Norm  an,  B.  S.,  - - - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  - - Associate  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  -----  - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Rapid  Method  for  Removing  Smut  from  Seed  Oats. 

J.  C.  Arthur. 


The  farmer  who  raises  oats  is  very  likely  to  sustain  a con- 
siderable loss  of  his  crop  from  the  presence  of  smut  in  the  field.  Oat 
smut  is  a fungus  that  starts  when  the  seed  germinates,  grows  inside 
the  stalks,  using  part  of  the  nourishment  of  the  oat  plant,  thereby 
preventing  the  stalks  attaining  full  height,  and  winds  up  its  career 
by  turning  the  grain,  and  often  the  chaff,  into  a black  powder,  which 
is  made  up  of  the  reproducing  spores  of  the  fungus.  If  this  black 
powder  gets  upon  the  seed  grain  sown  the  following  year,  the  result- 
ing crop  will  be  correspondingly  injured  by  smut. 

Oat  smut  is  very  common  throughout  the  state  and  the  country 
at  large.  Unless  preventive  measures  have  been  taken,  almost  any 
field  will  show  from  a few  per  cent,  to  ten,  fifteen,  twenty-five,  or 
even  fifty  per  cent,  of  smut.  Any  amount  under  ten  per  cent,  at- 
tracts little  or  no  attention,  because  the  affected  stalks  are  for  the 
most  part  so  much  shorter  and  less  conspicuous  than  the  healthy 
ones,  due  to  the  dwarfing  action  of  the  fungus.  There  is  abundant 
literature  to  substantiate  these  statements  in  reports  made  by  the 
various  state  experiment  stations  (see  Indiana  Bulletin  No.  35,  for 
1891).  If  any  farmer  doubts  that  he  is  losing  from  one  to  ten  bush- 
els or  more  of  oats  out  of  every  hundred  that  he  harvests,  let  him  go 
into  his  field  and  count  every  stalk,  little  and  big,  to  the  extent  of 
500  or  1 00c  in  different  parts  of  the  field,  making  note  of  the  num- 
ber of  those  blasted  with  smut,  and  he  will  be  surprised  at  the  result. 
He  should  not  be  deceived  into  thinking  that  some  of  the  stalks  are 
too  small  to  be  worth  counting,  for  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  attack 
of  smut  they  would  have  been  as  large  as  the  others  and  borne  full 
sized  heads  of  good  oats. 

This  station  has  long  worked  on  the  problem  of  preventing  the 
loss  from  oat  smut.  The  attempt  has  been  to  find  efficient  remedies, 
that  may  be  readily  applied.  Bulletin  28  gave  the  best  method 
known  at  that  time,  1889,  which  was  the  use  of  blue  vitriol  applied 
to  the  seed.  In  1891  Bulletin  35  gave  details  of  the  newly  tested 
method  of  treatment  with  hot  water,  an  excellent  method  still  used 
by  many  practical  men.  Again  in  1899  the  station  put  out  Bulletin 


258 


77  advocating  the  use  of  formalin"  for  cleaning  the  seed  and  pre- 
venting smut.  A more  extended  account  of  this  method,  giving 
much  practical  data,  was  issued  in  1901  as  Bulletin  87.  This 
method  has  proved  remarkably  efficient,  cheap,  and  easy  of  applica- 
tion, and  comes  as  near  to  being  an  absolutely  satisfactory  process 
as  any  known  for  a fungus  disease. 

Method  of  Treatment. — It  is  a simple  method,  requiring  no 
special  precautions.  Sprinkle  the  seed  oats  with  a solution  of  for- 
malin of  the  strength  of  one  pound  of  formalin  to  50  gallojts  of  water 
until  nearly  moist  enough  to  pack  in  the  hand,  shovel  into  a pile  and 
cover.  After  two  hours  or  more  the  oats  are  ready  to  sow,  or  can  be 
spread  out  and  dried  and  kept  for  future  sowing. 

Formalin  is  a gas  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  reason  for  cover- 
ing the  oats  is  to  keep  it  confined  and  give  time  for  the  gas  to  pene- 
trate between  the  chafh  of  the  grain,  and  thus  reach  every  spore  of 
the  fungus  and  kill  it.  After  the  spores  are  killed  it  is  immaterial 
whether  the  grain  is  sown  at  once  or  dried  and  sown  after  a time. 
If  sown  without  drying,  a little  more  per  acre  should  be  used  to 
allow  for  swelling. 

The  efficiency  of  this  method  has  been  fully  tested  and  is  beyond 
question.  Its  cost  is  about  one  and  a half  cents  per  bushel,  or  less, 
for  the  material.  Formalin  can  be  bought  at  almost  any  drug  store. 
The  time  and  labor  required  are  not  great,  and  the  returns  are 
ample.  The  trouble  in  setting  about  an  unfamiliar  piece  of  work 
is  probablv  the  greatest  obstacle  in  the  way  of  making  this  a regular 
farm  practice  for  every  thrifty  farmer  who  grows  oats. 

Treatment  on  a large  scale. — Two  years  ago  an  offer  was 
made  by  Messrs.  Caldwell,  Barr  & Co.,  of  Benton  County,  to  test  the 
formalin  method  on  a large  scale,  the  work  to  be  under  the  direction 
of  the  Station.  This  trial  was  carried  out  with  much  completeness, 
and  gave  satisfaction  to  both  parties  concerned.  Messrs.  Caldwell, 
Barr  & Co.  not  only  control  a large  acreage  for  seeding,  but  also 
operate  an  elevator,  especially  fitted  with  a device  for  purifying  and 
aerating  grain. 

All  the  handling  of  the  grain  being  done  by  machinery  made  it 
possible  to  apply  the  formalin  treatment  most  expeditiously  at  the 
rate  of  500  bushels  per  hour.  Formalin  was  used  of  the  strength 
of  one  pound  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water,  and  about  100 


259 


gallons  of  the  solution  used  for  each  500  bushels  of  grain.  The  cost 
of  the  formalin  for  this  amount  of  grain  is  therefore  from  $1.20  to 
$1.60,  according  to  the  retail  market  price  at  the  place  of  purchase, 
or  about  one-third  of  a cent,  per  bushel. 

To  carry  out  treatment  in  this  manner  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a vertical  drop  or  chimney  about  three  feet  square  and  40  to  50  feet 
high.  On  the  inside  of  this  drop  are  placed  shelves  or  deflectors 
sloping  downward,  alternately  on  two  opposite  sides  from  top  to 
bottom.  As  the  grain  drops  from  the  top  it  is  tossed  from  side  to 
side  as  it  strikes  against  the  deflectors  in  its  fall,  and  is  thus  thor- 
oughly mixed.  By  means  of  a small  steam  pump  the  solution  of 
formalin  is  thrown  against  the  falling  grain,  near  the  top  of  the 
drop,  irra  fine  spray.  The  rate  at  which  the  grain  is  allowed  to  flow 
determines  the  amount  of  solution  applied  per  bushel.  By  the  time 
the  grain  reaches  the  bottom  it  has  been  so  agitated  that  the  moist- 
ure is  distributed  with  perfect  uniformity. 

The  grain  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bin  at  the  bottom  of  the 
drop,  or  run  into  another  bin,  as  may  be  most  convenient,  and  after 
standing  not  less  than  two  hours,  or  over  night  if  desired,  it  can  be 
taken  to  the  field  for  sowing,  or  can  be  run  again  through  the  drop 
and  this  time  dried  out  by  a blast  of  cold  air.  After  drying,  the  oats 
may  be  kept  indefinitely  or  shipped.  Oats  thus  treated  are  not  in- 
jured for  feeding,  but  if  properly  handled  are  even  improved  by 
killing  deleterious  germs  other  than  smut  spores. 

The  appliances  used  in  this  process  are  used  in  combination 
with  principles  invented  by  Messrs.  Caldwell  and  Barr,  of  Earl 
Park,  Ind.,  which  were  originally  devised  to  apply  fumes  of  sulfur 
and  moisture  with  or  without  heat,  in  order  to  remove  stains,  kill 
germs,  and  otherwise  purify  and  brighten  various  kinds  of  grain. 
Their  inventions  used  in  this  process  of  ])urifying  are  covered  by 
letters  patent,  but  these  do  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  use  by 
anyone  of  the  appliances  and  ])i*ocess  for  applying  formalin  only, 
in  treatment  of  seed  as  outlined  above. 

In  addition  to  the  tests  with  formalin  a trial  was  made  with 
sulfur  fumes  and  moisture  at  air  temperature,  according  to  the 
firm’s  special  process,  and  heneficial  results  in  ])revcnting  smut 
attained,  but  considerably  inferior  to  the  formalin  treatment.  The 
germinating  power  of  the  seed  was  also  somewhat  less  satisfactory. 


26o 


Although  the  sulfur  process  is  not  likely  to  supercede  the  formalin 
method  as  a direct  means  of  preventing  smut,  yet  it  is  interesting 
to  know  that  seed  properly  treated  by  this  improved  method  of  pur- 
ifying is  partly,  if  not  wholly  cleaned  of  smut,  and  is  valuable  for 
seeding. 

Tests  in  1903. — The  following  record  is  made  to  show  the 
grounds  on  which  the  above  recommendations  are  based.  The  oats 
used  for  the  tests  were  not  especially  selected,  but  were  of  the  ordinary 
grade  being  handled  at  that  time.  Examination  by  the  centrifugal 
process,  devised  by  Professor  Bolley  of  North  Dakota,  showed  that 
the  percentage  of  smut  spores  present  was  low,  which  was  unfortu- 
nate from  the  experimental  standpoint,  as  it  gave  less  opportunity 
for  a conspicuous  and  convincing  demonstration. 

On  the  27th  of  March,  1903,  three  lots  of  oats  were  treated  with 
formalin,  and  one  with  sulfur  fumes,  and  were  sown  the  same  day, 
or  the  day  following.  It  took  approximately  fifteen  minutes  for  each 
treatment,  although  the  work  might  be  done  somewhat  more  rapidly 
v/ith  the  process  well  in  hand.  The  first  lot  of  140  bushels  received 
25  gallons  of  the  solution  (strength  of  i to  50)  containing  about 
half  a pound  of  formalin,  which  made  the  grain  moist,  but  not 
enough  to  pack  in  the  hand.  It  was  run  into  a bin  and  left  from 
5 P.  M.  until  8 A.  M.  the  next  morning.  It  then  appeared  dry,  all 
the  moisture  having  been  absorbed  by  the  seed,  and  was  at  once 
sown.  The  second  lot  of  90  bushels  received  16  gallons  of  the  solu- 
tion (strength  of  i to  50,  containing  about  one-third  pound  of  for- 
malin, and  a small  amount  of  steam  used  in  addition,  which  made  the 
grain  moist  enough  to  pack  slightly  in  the  hand.  It  was  run  into  a 
bin  and  left  two  hours,  then  dried  somewhat  with  a blast  of  air  at 
ordinary  temperature,  and  at  once  sown.  The  thwd  lot  of  97  bushels 
received  20  gallons  of  the  solution  (strength  of  i to  25)  containing 
about  four-fifths  of  a pound  of  formalin,  without  steam,  which  made 
the  grain  about  as  moist  as  in  the  last  lot  so  that  it  would  pack 
slightly  in  the  hand.  It  was  not  sown  until  the  day  following,  when 
it  was  dry  enough  to  be  used  in  the  seeder.  The  fourth  lot  was 
treated  with  sulfur  fumes  and  a spray  of  water,  both  at  ordinary 
temperature. 

Tests  in  the  laboratory  showed  that  the  number  of  germinations 
was  somewhat  reduced  by  the  formalin  treatment,  the  third  lot. 


which  had  the  strongest  treatment,  a trifle  more  than  the  others, 
and  that  the  germinations  of  the  sulfur  treated  lot  were  some- 
what lower  yet.  This  reduction  in  germination  is  not,  however,  an 
unmixed  evil,  as  it  takes  out  chiefly  the  weak  and  imperfect  seeds 
that  would  be  of  little  benefit  to  the  yield  in  quantity  and  none  in 
quality. 

LOT  1. 

Treated  at  rate  of  1 lb.  Formalin  to  280  bu.  oats  and  left  for  15  hrs. 


Per  cent, 
germination 

Number  stalks 
counted 

Number  stalks 
smutted 

Per  cent, 
smutted 

North 

field 

Treated 

93 

3000 

51 

1.7 

Control 

97 

1500 

54 

3.6 

South 

field 

Treated 

93 

3000 

45 

1.5 

Control 

97 

3000 

114 

1 

bo 

The  treated  lots  were  sowed  in  fields  of  thirty  to  fifty  acres  each, 
with  a field,  of  about  the  same  size  adjoining  each  one  for  untreated 
seed.  As  the  first  lot  treated  was  much  larger  than  the  others,  it  was 
sown  in  two  fields  some  distance  apart  with  an  untreated  field  be- 
LOTS  2,  3 AND  4, 

About  90  bushels  of  oats  sown  in  each  field. 


Pot 

TREATMENT 

Per  cent, 
germinafn 

No.  stalks 
counted 

No.  stalks 
smutted 

Per  cent, 
smutted 

2 

Treated  at  rate  of  1 lb. 
formalin  to  270  bu. 

93 

3000 

51 

1.7 

3 

Treated  at  rate  of  1 lb. 
1 formalin  to  120  bu. 

92 

3000 

9 

.3 

4 

Treated  with  sulfur 
fumes 

88 

3000 

61 

2.0 

Control 

Untreated 

97 

1500 

42 

2.8 

262 


:^ide  each  one  as  a control,  and  data  taken  independently  for  the 
different  fields.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  uniform  the  data  run 
for  the  smut  in  these  parallel  tests.  The  treatment  was  given  on 
the  twenty-seventh  of  March.  A sample  of  each  lot,  amounting  to 
a little  over  a pint,  was  taken  to  the  laboratory  of  the  Nation  at 
Lafayette,  from  which  200  seed  of  each  in  duplicate  sets  of  100  were 
placed  in  a Geneva  germinator  for  determining  their  vitality,  and  the 
remainder  sown  in  the  station  garden.  On  July  8th  the  percentage 
of  smut  was  determined  in  the  plats  at  Lafayette,  by  counting  500 
stalks  of  each  treated  lot,  and  twice  as  many  of  the  untreated.  On 
July  9th  and  loth  the  percentage  of  smut  in  the  fields  at  Earl  Park 
was  also  determined  by  counting  a still  larger  number  of  stalks  over 

SUMMARY. 


Lot 

TREATMENT 

Per  cent, 
germina- 
tion 

Per  cent, 
smut  in 
tield 

Per  cent, 
smut  in 
garden 

1 

Formalin  too  weak.  Not  enough 
moisture  used.  Helped  by  standing 

93 

1.6 

1.2 

2 

F ornialin  too  weak.  Right  amount  of 
moisture  used.  Stood  too  short  a time 

93 

1.7 

1.8 

3 

Formalin  strong  enough.  Right 
amount  of  moisture  used.  Stood 
2 to  15  hours 

92 

.3 

.0 

4 

Sulfur  fumes 

88 

2.0 

1.4 

Control 

Untreated 

97 

3.5 

3.8 

several  areas  in  different  parts  of  each  field.  These  statistics  of  the 
amount  of  smut  were  taken  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Marquis,  an  accurate  and 
conscientious  worker.  The  data  are  recorded  in  the  several  tables. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  consulting  the  last  table,  that  the  percent- 
age of  smut  in  the  untreated  seed  is  larger  in  the  garden  plats  than 
in  the  field,  and  in  the  treated  seed  it  is  mostly  smaller  in  the  garden 
plats  than  in  the  field.  This  is  what  should  be  expected,  because  the 
small  amount  of  seed  used  in  the  garden  did  not  receive  much  hand- 
ling and  practically  no  spores  were  knocked  off  the  grain  in  the 


263 


process  of  sowing,  and  also  there  was  no  contamination  of  the 
treated  seed  with  untreated  seed.  In  farm  practice  the  more  the  un- 
treated seed  containing  much  smut  is  handled,  the  more  spores  are 
dislodged  and  blown  away  from  the  grain,  thus  slightly  decreasing 
the  amount  of  smut  that  develops.  If  this  grain  is  put  through  a 
fanning  mill  or  similar  cleaning  process,  much  more  smut  will  be 
removed.  But  the  amount  of  smut  got  rid  of  in  such  manner  is  only 
a small  part  of  the  whole  amount  on  the  seed.  Again,  on  the  farm 
when  seed  has  been  treated  and  the  smut  spores  killed,  there  is  likely 
to  be  some  contamination  from  bins,  wagon  beds,  bags,  seeders,  etc., 
used  in  handling  this  seed  between  treatment  and  its  deposit  in  the 
ground,  thus  re-introducing  a small  amount  of  smut  into  the  clean 
seed,  unless  unusual  precautions  are  taken.  This  slight  difference 
between  farm  practice  and  exact  experience  is  well  brought  out  in 
the  last  table. 

It  will  be  observed  by  examining  the  table  of  summaries  that  in 
the  three  trials  with  formalin,  the  first  and  second  were  faulty  be- 
cause the  formalin  solution  was  too  weak,  although  a strength  of  one 
part  of  formalin  to  fifty  parts  of  water  is  what  has  been  found  most 
satisfactorv  in  farm  practice  where  the  work  is  done  by  hand.  This 
is  doubtless  because  some  of  the  formalin  is  lost  while  the  grain  is 
thrown  about  in  passing  down  the  fifty  foot  drop.  The  third  trial 
came  verv  near  being  wholly  satisfactory,  because  the  formalin  was 
used  twice  as  strong.  Possibly  it  was  a little  stronger  than  neces- 
sary, as  evidenced  by  the  slightly  lower  germinations,  for  we  may 
doubtless  credit  the  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  smut  found  in 
the  field  to  contamination  in  handling  the  treated  seed.  But  the 
results  are  exceedingly  satisfactory,  so  far  as  one  season’s  trial  can 
be  made. 

Similar  trials  of  the  formalin  and  sulfur  methods  were  made  in 
T904,  but  the  much  lower  percentage  of  smut  in  the  untreated  seed, 
and  the  unfavorable  season  for  the  development  of  smut,  prevented 
the  work  from  bringing  out  any  additional  facts. 

Conclusion. — A very  rapid  and  inexpensive  method  of  killing 
all  smut  in  seed  oats,  and  rendering  the  resulting  crop  practically 
free  from  smut,  is  to  apply  a spray  of  formalin,  strength 
of  I pound  to  25  gallons  of  water  (or  somewhat  weaker),  using 


264 


about  twenty-five  gallons  of  the  solution  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
bushels  of  seed,  in  the  manner  describe_d  above.  Let  the 

treated  grain  lie  in  a bin  from  two  to  fifteen  hours  after  treating, 
before  it  is  sown.  If  sowing  can  not  be  done  at  once,  have  the  seed 
dried  and  kept  for  future  sowing. 

There  are  already  a number  of  grain  elevators  in  Indiana  fitted 
with  machinery  for  this  work.  Some  of  them  will  treat  seed  oats  in 
this  manner  for  any  farmer  without  additional  charge,  and  the  ex- 
pense in  any  case,  will  amount  to  little  more  than  the  time  of  going 
to  the  elevator,  while  the  profit  to  the  farmer  may  be  considerable. 


Purdue  Universitu 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  No.  104,  Vol.  XII 

MARCH,  1Q0§ 


A Simple  Alkali  Test  for  Ripeness  of  Cream. 


PC/HLISIIEI)  HY  THE  STATION, 
J.A Fayette,  Ind., 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


W11.UAM  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Addison  C.  Harris,  _ - - - Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

SYUvnesTKR  Johnson,  - - - . - Irvington,  Marion  C9. 

David  E.  Beam,  - - - - - Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  - - - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  _ - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charles  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co 

Charles  Major,  _ _ _ _ Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Ellsworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Fowler,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


WiNTHROP  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

William  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,  - ‘ - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arvill  W.  Bitting;  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.‘  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  _ - _ . Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A..C.,  - - Associate  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Nellie  Tracy,  -----  - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


A Simple  Alkali  Test  for  Ripeness  of  Cream. 

By  H.  E.  Van  Norman. 


Visits 'at  a good  many  Indiana  creameries  show  but  few  of  our 
buttermakers  using  regularly  in  their  work  the  alkali  test  for  deter- 
mining the  ripeness  of  cream.  In  several  instances  grocers  using 
butter  from  Indiana  creameries  said  that  the  chief  fault  was  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  product  from  week  to  week.  These  conditions 
together  with  the  requests  of  students  for  information  as  to  where 
the  Purdue  test  could  be  secured,  prompt  the  publication  of  the 
following  description  of  it,  and  the  further  urging  that  our  Indiana 
buttermakers  use  every  means  at  their  command  to  improve  the 
quality  and  insure  that  uniformity  which  will  command  the  top  mar- 
ket price.  There  is  no  reason  which  cannot  be  overcome,  why 
“State  creamery’’  butter  should  not  command  as  high  price  as 
“Elgin.”  In  fact  when  the  quality  is  there,  in  all  probability  it  is 
sold  as  “Elgin.” 

This  test  is  particularly  adapted  to  creamery  conditions.  How- 
ever, there  is  no_  reason  why  the  dairyman  who  is  making  a consid- 
erable amount  of  butter,  sufficient  to  justify  the  labor,  should  not 
become  familiar  with  this  test  even  though  he  may  not  use  it  reg- 
ularly. If  he  is  supplying  a critical  trade  at  a satisfactory 
price  it  is  desirable  to  use  every  means  to  secure  uniformity  of 
product. 

The  Test. 

During  the  ripening  of  cream  the  milk  sugar  in  it  is  converted 
into  lactic  acid  by  bacteria.  The  measurement  of  the  amount  of 
acid  developed  during  the  ripening  is  the  nearest  approach  we  have 
to  a measure  of  the  ripeness  of  the  cream.  For  this  purpose  Mann’s 
acid  test  and  Farrin^on’s  alkali  test  have  been  used  with  marked 
success.  Where  either  one  of  these  tests  are  regularly  used,  it  is  the 
almost  universal  experience  that  the  quality  of  the  butter  runs  more 
uniform,  and  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk  is  less  than  where  the 
maker  depends  on  his  nose  and  his  taste  to  determine  the  ripeness  of 
the  cream. 

We  have  used  in  the  Dairy  school  and  the  Station  laboratory 
at  Purdue,  for  a year  and  a half  past,  a slight  modification  of  the 
tests  on  the  market,  which  has  simplified  the  work  and  contributed 
to  accuracy  of  results. 


268 


THE  APPARATUS  REQUIRED. 


269 


The  apparatus  required  are  a 17.6  cc  Babcock  pipette  which 
should  be  found  in  every  creamery  with  the  Babcock  testing  outfit, 
a 100  cc  cylinder  such  as  is  used  with  the  Farrington  test,  a two 
quart  bottle  graduated  at  1,850  cc.,  37  cc  of  normal  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  accurately  measured,  and  a small  bottle,  four  or  eight 
ounces,  of  Phenolphthalein  indicator  (a  two  per  cent,  alcoholic  solu- 
tion.) The  caustic  soda  solution  must  be  procured  from  a reputable 
chemical  or  dairy  supply  house  which  can  be  depended  upon  to 
furnish  it  of  standard  strength  accurately  measured.  A two  quart 
bottle,  with  a long  sloping  neck,  such  as  is  used  for  mineral  waters 
sold  at  the  drug  stores,  may  be  graduated  by  measuring  into  it  care- 
fully 1850  cc  of  water  at  a temperature  of  60°,  and  then  with  a fine 
file  marking  the  point  on  the  neck  to  which  the  water  rises. 

To  prepare  the  solution  pour  into  this  large  graduated  bottle 
37  cc  of  normal  caustic  soda  solution,  rinse  the  little  bottle,  empty- 
ing this  rinse  water  into  the  large  bottle  also,  then  fill  with  water. 
Condensed  steam  from  the  steam  pipe,  if  it  is  free  from  boiler  com- 
pounds and  oil,  should  be  used ; if  not,  use  rain  water  and  fill  the 
large  bottle  to  the  mark  on  the  neck.  This  makes  a 50th  normal  so- 
lution ready  for  use. 

To  Test  Cream,  Milk  or  Starter. 

With  a Babcock  pipette  measure  into  a white  cup,  or  even  a 
common  composite  sample  jar,  17.6  cc  of  the  cream  to  be  tested, 
which  has  been  well  stirred ; rinse  the  pipette  out  with  clean  water, 
putting  the  rinse  water  into  the  cream  sample  and  add  four  or  five 
drops  of  the  Phenolphthalein  indicator.  Having  filled  the  cylinder  to 
the  top  or  100  cc  mark  with  the  50th  normal  alkali  solution,  begin 
pouring  slowly  into  the  cream  sample,  mixing  with  a rotary  motion 
of  the  hand  or  stirring  with  a glass  rod  until  there  is  a pink  color 
noticeable,  which  does  not  disappear  immediately  by  continued  stir- 
ring. Note  the  number  of  cc  of  the  alkali  solution  required  to  bring 
about  this  result.  This  will  indicate  the  numljer  of  looth  per  cent 
of  acidity,  since  i cc  of  the  alkali  will  neutralize  .01  per  cent  of 
acid  when  17.6  cc  of  milk  or  cream  is  used.  A cream  under  most 
conditions  should  be  churned  at  an  acidity  somewhere  between  .55 
and  .70  per  cent,  of  acid,  de])ending  on  the  richness  of  the  cream 
and  market  requirements  for  flavor. 


270 


ADDING  THE  ALKALI  TO  THE  CREAM  AND  MIXING  THEM. 


271 


Cream  that  requires  66  cc  to  neutralize  it  is  not  appreciably 
riper  than  that  requiring  64  cc.  While  in  the  case 'of  the  Mann’s 
test,  an  error  of  2 cc  means  a very  appreciable  variation  in  the  ripe- 
ness of  the  cream. 

Since  the  per  cent  of  acid  present  in  any  cream  is  influenced 
by  the  part  not  fat  and  since  this  is  influenced  by  the  per  cent  of  fat 
in  the  cream,  the  per  cent  of  acidity  required  will  vary  with  the 
percent  of  fat  in  the  cream.  We  have  adopted  for  our  work  in 
cream  ripening  the  rule: — 100  minus  the  test  times  .9  equals  cc.  of 
alkali  required  at  churning  time,  (100  — test  X -9  = cc.)  the  test 
being  the  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  cream.  For  example. 

If  the  cream  tests  30  per  cent  we  would  have  100 

30 

70 

•9 

63.0  = cc.  alkali 

required  to  neutralize  17.6  cc.  cream  when  it  is  ready  to  churn.  In 
the  case  of  cream  testing  25  per  cent  fat  we  would  have  100 

25 

75 

•9 

67.5  = cc.  alkali 

Therefore  that  cream  would  be  ripened  to  .67  or  .68  per  cent  acidity. 

Each  buttermaker  must  modify  the  above  rule  to  suit  his  own 
market  requirements,  then  prepare  a table  similar  to  the  following 
which  he  can  paste  on  the  alkali  bottle  for  ready  reference : — 

20  per  cent  cream  requires  .72  ])er  cent  acidity  at  churning. 

25  per  cent  cream  requires  .67  j)er  cent  acidity  at  churning. 

30  per  cent  cream  requires  .63  per  cent  acidity  at  churning. 

If  the  above  is  too  high,  he  may  take  .8  as  much  acidity  as  he  has 

milk  serum,  i.  e.,  100  — per  cent,  fat  X = number  of  hundredths 
of  a per  cent,  of  acidity  required. 


272 


The  advantages  which  we  have  found  in  the  use  of  this  method 
are  that  the  small  bottles  of  normal  solution  do  not  lose  their 
strength  as  long  as  they  are  left  properly  corked.  Several  may  be 
ordered  at  a time,  reducing  cost  of  express  and  danger  of  breakage. 
The  bottles  measured  out  a year  ago  have  not  perceptibly  weak- 
ened. The  transportation  charge  on  these  small  bottles  is  very 
much  less  than  on  the  Mann’s  solution.  The  strength  is  more  uni- 
form than  in  the  case  of  the  Farrington  tablets.  In  using  there  is 
less  waste  of  solution  pouring  into  the  large  cylinder  than  is  usual 
where  the  burette  is  used.  The  larger  amount  of  a weaker  solution 
used  reduces  the  per  cent  of  error  in  the  final  results.  The  size  of 
the  bottle  and  the  cylinder  are  more  convenient  to  handle,  the  cost 
per  test  is  less.  There  is  no  waiting  for  tablets  to  dissolve.  It  is 
:eady  as  soon  as  it  is  shaken  up,  altogether  making  a more  con- 
venient test  for  factory  use. 

The  confusion  resulting  from  the  use  of  two  tests  for  the  same 
work  reporting  the  results  in  different  terms  has  prompted  the 
suggestion*  that  a uniform  standard  is  desirable.  It  suggests  the 
use  of  a 50th  normal  solution,  which  is  in  harmony  with  the  prac- 
tice in  this  laboratory  for  the  past  year  and  a half,  and  further  sug- 
gests that  butter  makers  having  Mann’s  test  have  but  to  make  up  a 
solution  with  one  part  Mann’s  solution  and  four  parts  distilled 
water,  which  may  be  secured  from  the  steam  pipe,  or  rain  water 
may  be  used.  This  solution  will  be  equivalent  in  strength  to  a 50th 
normal  if  the  Mann’s  solution  was  right,  and  with  a graduated  cyl- 
inder such  as  described  above  or  a burette  will  enable  the  butter 
maker  to  report  the  results  in  per  cent  of  acidity,  since  i cc  of  this 
solution  will  measure  .01  per  cent  of  acid  when  the  cream  is 
measured  with  a Babcock  pipette. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  acidity  of  cream  be  reported  in  per 
cent,  as  being  better  for  comparison  and  more  convenient. 

To  Grade  Cream. 

In  spite  of  the  reluctance  of  many  creameries  to  receive  cream 
from  the  hand  separators,  the  amount  of  butter  made  from  such 
cream  is  increasing  quite  rapidly.  The  increased  value  of  the  skim 


'‘New  York  Produce  Review,  June  8,  1904,  page  210. 


273 


milk  for  feeding  purposes,  the  every  other  day  delivery  of  cream, 
the  greater  convenience  to  the  farmer,  all  combine  to  make  him  want 
the  hand  separator,  rather  than  the  delivery  of  his  whole  milk  to 
the  creamery. 

If  the  cream  has  been  as  well  handled  as  the  whole  milk,  as 
good  butter  can  be  made.  The  objection  is  not  that  the  cream 
cannot  be  delivered  in  as  good  shape,  but  that  it  is  not.  The  cream- 
ery that  receives  hand  separator  cream  is  confronted  with  the  prob- 
lem of  getting  a cream  of  that  quality  which  will  enable  it  to  make 
first-class  butter. 

While  it  is  not  a cure-all  for  the  situation,  it  has  been  found  a 
great  help  to  grade  the  cream,  and  pay  less  for  that  which  falls 
below  a certain  standard,  arriving  sweet  and  free  from  objection- 
able taints. 

To  determine  the  sweetness  the  alkali  test  may  be  used  with 
marked  success.  For  pasteurizing  purposes  it  is  considered  that 
milk  must  not  have  over  .2  of  one  per  cent  of  acidity.  This  same 
standard  may  be  adopted  in  cream  gr.ading,  and  any  cream  having 
over  that  amount  may  be  classed  as  second  grade. 

For  the  sake  of  illustration  we  will  use  .2  per  cent  as  the  stand- 
ard. In  the  weigh  room  on  a convenient  shelf,  arrange  an  extra  set  of 
pint  or  half  pint  sample  jars,  as  many  as  are  needed  for  the  number 
of  lots  of  milk  or  cream  which  it  is  desired  to  test  for  acidity.  Be- 
fore the  morning  arrivals  begin,  measure  into  each  of  the  jars  20  cc 
of  the  50th  normal  alkali  solution  described  on  previous  pages, 
and  add  three  or  four  dro])s  of  the  indicator.  This  will  give  an 
alkali  solution  of  a bright  pink  color.  Have  near  some  clean  dis- 
tilled water,  or  rain  water.  When  the  first  lot  of  cream  arrives, 
which  it  'S  desired  to  test,  after  emptying  into  the  weigh  can  and 
thoroughly  mixing,  draw  a Babcock  test  ])ipette  (17.6  cc)  of  the 
cream,  and  put  it  into  the  first  jar.  Draw  some  of  the  clean  water 
into  the  pipette  to  rinse  the  cream  down  which  has  adhered  to  the 
inside  of  the  pipette,  putting  this  rinse  water  into  the  sample  jar 
with  the  cream.  Having  done  this  give  the  jar  a rotary  motion  and 
thoroughly  mix  cream  and  alkali.  If  the  color  remains  pink,  there 
is  not  enough  acid  in  the  cream  to  make  the  .2  per  cent.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  color  all  disapi)cars,  there  is  more  acid  than  .2  per 
cent,  and  the  cream  would  not  be  accepted  as  sweet. 


274 

Any  standard  of  acidity  may  be  adopted  that  the  experience  of 
the  creamery  dictates. 

To  measure  the  alkali  into  the  jars  the  regular  cylinder  may  be 
used,  or  if  the  pipette  is  one  of  those  with  a fairly  large  diameter 
and  the  17.6  mark  down  close  to  the  bulb,  20  cc  may  be  measured 
into  it  carefully  and  with  a file  it  can  be  marked ; then  the  alkali  can 
be  measured  into  the  jars  with  the  pipette  and  the  same  one  will  do 
for  both : remembering  that  the  number  of  cc  of  alkali  used  for  17.6 
cc  of  cream  represents  the  per  cent,  of  acidity. 

The  small  amount  of  cream  required  makes  this  an  inexpensive 
test.  Placing  the  question  of  sweet  or  sour  on  so  nearly  an  exact 
basis,  rather  than  entirely  on  the  judgment  of  the  man  weighing 
in  the  cream,  often  has  a very  helpful  influence  on  the  mind  of  the 
patron  in  convincing  him  that  there  is  really  a difference  between 
the  cream  which  he  is  bringing,  and  that  which  is  wanted. 

It  will  usually  not  be  necessary  to  test  all  the  cream  received 
each  day,  especially  after  it  has  been  done  regularly  for  some  time. 


Table  of  Comparison. 


Reading  of  Mann’s 

Per  cent,  by 

Acid  Test 

Purdue  or 

FarringP 

20 

CC 

equivalent  to 

.36  per  cent. 

21 

u 

.38 

22 

.40 

U 

23 

.41 

24 

•43 

25 

(i 

•45 

U 

26 

ii 

u 

•47 

27 

u 

•49 

28 

•50 

2g 

•52 

30 

a 

n 

•54 

31 

ii 

•56 

if 

32 

u 

a 

•58 

(f 

33 

•59 

34 

a 

.61 

if 

3^^ 

a 

u 

•63 

if 

36 

a 

u 

•65 

37 

i( 

.67 

if 

38 

u 

u 

.68 

(( 

3Q 

u 

.70 

££ 

40 

.72 

U 

Purdue  University 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  105.  Vol.  XII. 
March,  1905. 


Corn  Improvement  in  Indiana 


PuDllstieil  tiy  ilie  stailon: 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA 
U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Wii,UAM  V.  Stuart,  President,  - LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 
Addison  C.  Harris,  - - - - Indianapolis,  Marion  Co. 

Sylvester  Johnson,  - - - - Irvington,  Marion  Co. 

David  E.  Be:am,  - Spencer,  Owen  Co. 

Job  H.  VanNatta,  _ _ _ LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  Co. 

James  M.  Barrett,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co. 

Charees  Downing,  - - - - Greenfield,  Hancock  Co. 

Christian  B.  Stemen,  - - - - Fort  Wayne,  Allen  Co 

Charees  Major,  _ _ _ - Shelbyville,'  Shelby  Co. 

Edward  A.  Eeesworth,  Secretary. 

James  M.  Foweer,  Treasurer. 


STATION  STAFF. 


Winthrop  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  President  of  the  University. 

Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C.  - - - Director  and  Chemist. 

WiEEiAM  C.  Latta,  M.  S.,'  ‘ - - - - Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S.,  - - Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc.,  -----  Botanist. 

Arviee  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D.  - - Veterinarian. 

Hubert  E.  VanNorman,  B.  S.,  _ _ - - Dairyman. 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S.,  - - - - - Live  Stock. 

AeFred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A.,  - Associate  Agriculturist. 

WiEEiAM  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C.,  ’ - - Associate  Chemist. 

M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S.,  - - - - Assistant  Agriculturist. 

R.  M.  Hamer,  -------  Stockman. 

Neeeie  Tracy,  -----  - - Clerk  and  Librarian. 


Corn  Improvement  in  Indiana 


By  a.  T.  Wiancko. 


It  is  gratifying  to  note  on  every  hand  that  the  farmers  of 
Indiana  are  rapidly  taking  a greater  interest-  in  the  improvement 
of  their  corn.  Questions  are  constantly  being  asked  as  to  methods 
of  improvement  and  wher-e  good  seed  of  improved  varieties  can  be 
secured.  That  many  farmers  are  now  willing  to  pay  good  prices 
for  good  seed  corn  is  a healthy  sign. 

Corn  is  undoubtedly  the  king  of  grain  crops  throughout  In- 
diana. The  crop  of  the  year  1904,  for  this  state,  amounted  to  the 
magnificent  total  of  143,396,852  bushels,  representing  a money  value 
of  over  S6o,ooo,ooo  for  the  grain  alone.  Over  4,000,000  acres  of 
the  best  lands  in  the  State  are  annually  planted  to  corn.  The 
average  production  during  the  last  ten  years  on  this  area  has  been 
about  33  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  very  much  smaller  than  it  should 
be.  Experiments  now  in  progress  show  that  the  average  yield  might 
easily  be  very  materially  increased  by  a combination  of  more  careful 
seed  selection,  better  cultural  methods,  and  proper  attention  to  the 
maintenance  and  improvement  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  prospects  for  improvement  are  very  bright.  Our  farmers 
are  awakening  to  a belief  in  the  possibilities,  and  are  beginning  to 
make  an  effort  in  the  right  direction.  We  could  point  to  quite  a 
number  of  farmers  in  the  State,  working  on  average  soils,  who  are 
producing  60  to  75  l)ushels  per  acre  every  year,  and  their  methods 
are  not  yet  by  any  means  as  good  as  they  might  be.  Large  areas 
of  the  better  lands  are  capable  of  producing,  and  some  are  pro- 
ducing, even  with  comparatively  poor  methods,  80  to  100  bushels 
per  acre. 

There  is  no  crop  that  is  more  responsive  to  more  careful  se- 
lection of  seed  and  better  methods  of  treatment  generally  than  is 


278 


corn.  A difference  of  five  to  ten  bushels  per  acre  in  productiveness 
is  easily  made,  and  the  crop  of  the  State  could  easily  be  increased  by 
several  millions  of  bushels  in  a single  season  without  increasing 
the  acreage,  and  at  practically  no  greater  expense.  Our  conditions 
for  corn  production  as  to  soil  and  climate  are,  for  the  most  part, 
excellent  and  there  is  no  adequate  excuse  for  the  low  average 
yields.  If  every  farmer  would  make  a little  effort,  wonderful  im- 
provements could  be  quickly  produced.  There  is  little  danger  of 
over  production.  The  markets  of  the  world  are  large  and  the  uses 
to  which  corn  are  put  are  constantly  growing  and  increasing. 

Any  effort  at  corn  improvement  must  be  based  upon  proper 
methods  of  breeding  and  seed  selection,  as  well  as  careful  field  cul- 
ture. Better  seed  will  go  a long  way  towards  producing  larger 
yields.  In  the  following  pages  an  effort  will  be  made  to  describe 
and  discuss  practical  and  easily  applied  methods  of  improving  the 
yield  and  quality  of  corn,  so  far  as  this  is  dependent  upon  better 
seed. 


279 


I.  THE  SELECTION  AND  PREPARATION  OF  SEED  CORN. 

The  importance  of  selecting  good  seed  corn,  taking  good  care 
of  it,  and  preparing  it  well  for  the  planter  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Experments  have  shown  that  well  bred  and  cerefully  selected  seed 
corn,  of  a type  suited  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  where  it  is 
to  be  used,  will  produce  from  ten  to  one  hundred  per  cent  more 
corn  per  acre  than  the  seed  corn  at  present  used  by  the  average 
farmer.  Rich  soil  and  good  culture  are  important  factors  in  pro- 
ducing a large  crop  of  corn,  but  good  seed  will  add  very  consider- 
ably to  the  yield.  Our  farmers  are  gradually  awakening  to  a reali- 
ization  of  this  fact  and  many  have  already  materially  increased  their 
yields  by  greater  attention  to  the  quality  of  the  seed  they  use. 

Time  and  Methods  of  Gathering  Seed  Corn. 

To  get  the  best  seed  corn  it  should  be  selected  in  the  field  after 
it  has  matured  and  while  the  characters  of  the  parent  stalk  can  be 
observed.  This  can  be  done  to  the  best  advantage  by  going  through 
the  field  after  the  corn  is  mature  and  before  the  general  harvest  be- 
gins and  picking  ears  of  good  size  and  quality  from  the  stalks  that 
are  strong  and  vigorous  looking,  but  not  coarse.  There  should  be 
a large  leaf  development.  The  leaf  is  the  laboratory  of  the  plant 
where  the  food  it  gathers  is  manufactured.  The  stalk  should  be  of 
medium  size,  strong  at  the  base  and  tapering  gradually  to  the  tassel. 
It  should  stand  up  well  and  bear  its  ear  at  a convenient  height  for 
husking.  The  shank  should  be  of  medium  length  and  strength.  A 
short  shank  holds  the  ear  too  erect,  while  a long  shank  allows  it  to 
hang  over  too  far.  Ears  on  long  shanks  or  high  up  on  the  stalk  are 
more  likely  to  pull  down  the  stalk  during  a wind  storm,  besides  be- 
ing inconvenient  to  husk.  The  ears  selected  should  be  strong  and 
well  developed,  with  straight  rows  of  regular  sized  kernels  (see 
illustrations).  The  kernels  should  be  rather  deeply  dented.  The 
smoother  kernels  are  generally  shallower  and  will  not  produce  so 
well.  The  seed  ears  should  always  be  a little  rougher  than  the  aver- 
age of  the  crop,  otherwise  the  variety  will  become  smoother  each 
vear  and  the  kernels  shallower. 


28o 


Seed  corn  should  never  be  picked  before  it  is  mature.  An  im- 
mature kernel  has  not  had  time  to  store  up  all  the  food  it  wanted 
and  consequently  will  be  more  or  less  weak  in  vitality.  Early  picked 
corn,  if  well  preserved,  may  germinate  well  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, but  its  constitution  has  been  weakened  and  the  yield  will  be 
correspondingly  lessened.  Nature  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  the 
seed  in  her  own  way. 

Selecting  seed  corn  from  the  crib  is  always  objectionable.  The 
vitality  has  generally  been  more  or  less  injured,  and,  while  the  ears 
selected  may  have  a good  appearance,  one  can  tell  nothing  as  to  the 
character  of  the  stalks  which  produced  them.  Numerous  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  crib  corn  produces  smaller  yields  than  corn 
that  has  been  properly  selected  in  the  field  and  well  preserved 
through  the  winter. 

The  quantity  of  seed  corn  selected  from  the  field  should  always 
be  considerably  more  than  will  be  needed  for  planting  so  that  there 
may  be  room  for  further  and  more  critical  selection  later  on.  If 
the  quantity  of  seed  ears  selected  before  the  general  husking  is  in- 
sufficient, it  is  a good  plan  to  have  a small  box  attached  to  the  out- 
side of  the  wagon  box  into  which  desirable  seed  ears  found  while- 
husking  can  be  put. 

The:  Preservation  oe  Seed  Corn. 

Much  corn  that  is  intended  for  seed  is  injured  by  improper 
methods  of  drying  and  storing.  It  is  most  liable  to  injury  during 
the  first  month  or  six  weeks  after  husking.  As  it  comes  from  the 
field  it  still  contains  twenty-five  or  more  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  as 
this  moisture  is  contained  within  the  kernel  and  cob  it  takes  con- 
siderable time  to  get  rid  of  it,  unless  artificial  heat  is  applied. 

It  should  be  stored  at  once  in  a dry,  well  ventilated  place,  and 
in  such  a way  that  there  may  be  a free  circulation  of  air  around  each 
ear.  If  this  is  not  done  its  vitality  is  almost  sure  to  be  injured, 
either  by  moulding,  fermenting,  growing  or  freezing.  There  are 
many  methods  of  storing  seed  corn,  but  in  all  cases  the  place  of 
.storing  must  be  dry  and  well  ventilated.  Seed  corn  should  always 
he  stored  in  the  ear.  It  should  never  be  put  into  boxes,  barrels  or 
sacks.  In  some  cases  it  is  successfully  kept  in  the  cellar  under  the 


house,  but  few  cellars  are  dry  enough  for  the  purpose.  The  attic, 
or  an  empty  room  upstairs  in  the  house,  is  a good  place  for  storing 
if  it  is  not  too  warm  and  close  while  the  corn  is  still  moist.  The 
barn  and  crib  are  suitable  places  for  storing  if  there  is  time  enough 
for  the  ears  to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  freezing  weather 
comes.  The  amount  of  freezing  seed  corn  will  stand  depends  en- 
tirely upon  its  dryness.  If  thoroughly  dry  and  surrounded  by  dry 
atmosphere  it  will  stand  very  cold  weather. 

No  matter  where  it  is  stored  it  should  be  either  hung  up  or 
placed  on  racks  made  of  narrow  strips  with  spaces  between.  A 
specially  constructed  seed  corn  room  is,  of  course,  desirable  and 
should  be  provided  whenever  possible,  especially  if  a considerable 
amount  of  seed  is  to  be  stored.  Such  a house  should  be  set  upon 
posts  a couple  of  feet  above  ground  so  that  air  may  circulate  freely 
underneath.  It  should  also  be  made  mouse  proof  by  placing  in- 
' verted  galvanized  iron  pans  upon  the  posts  upon  which  the  building 
rests.  The  structure  must  be  of  such  a nature  that  a free  circula- 
tion of  air  can  always  be  secured.  The  inside  should  be  fitted  with 
racks,  not  ordinary  shelves,  upon  which  to  place  the  corn.  These 
racks  may  be  made  by  setting  a row  of  uprights,  six  inches  wide, 
several  inches  out  from  the  wall  at  intervals  of  about  four  feet,  se- 
curely fastened  to  the  floor  and  to  joists  above.  A narrow  cross 
piece  is  then  nailed  on  each  side  of  the  row  of  uprights,  several 
inches  above  the  floor,  upon  which  to  lay  a double  row  of  ears. 
Above  this  two  more  strips  are  nailed  for  a second  double  row  of 
ears,  and  so  on  to  a convenient  height.  The  next  rack  should  be 
placed  far  enough  away  from  the  first'  so  that  a man  may  con- 
veniently pass  between.  The  third  one  may  be  placed  about  six 
inches  from  the  second.  Then  another  passage  should  be  left,  and 
so  on  across  the  room.  Such  a seed  house  need  not  be  expensive 
and  will  soon  pay  for  itself  by  the  better  quality  of  the  seed  corn 
stored  in  it.  The  house  should  be  ])rovided  with  a stove  in  which 
a slow  fire  may  be  kc])t  during  dam])  weather.  Where  a separate 
seed  hou.se  can  not  be  provided,  racks  similar  to  those  discribed 
above  may  be  constructed  in  any  building  where  the  corn  can  be 
kept  dry. 


282 


While  it  is  a good  plan  to  have  a stove  in  the  seed  house  for 
use  in  damp  weather,  fire  drying  of  seed  corn  should  not  generally 
be  practiced.  It  is  always  more  or  less  risky  on  account  of  the  dan- 
ger of  over-heating  while  the  corn  is  still  moist.  Natural  drying, 
:f  there  is  time  for  it,  is  always  safest. 

Buying  Corn. 

Seed  corn  should  always  be  purchased  in  the  ear.  For  this 
there  are  at  least  three  important  reasons.  First,  the  purchaser  can 
see  exactly  what  he  is  getting,  and  the  corn  is  likely  to  be  of  much 
better  quality.  Dealers  always  select  the  better  ears  to  supply  the 
customers  who  demand  ear  corn.  Second,  the  vitality  can  be  more 
thoroughly  tested  and  the  poor  ears  can  be  detected  and  discarded. 
Third,  the  seed  can  be  better  prepared  for  the  planter  by  more 
thoroughly  discarding  the  ununiform  kernels.  Ear  corn  usually  sells 
for  double  the  price  of  shelled  corn  and  there  is  good  reason  for  it. 
Only  a small  proportion  of  the  ears  in  a wagon  load  of  corn  are 
good  looking  enough  to  sell  for  seed  in  the  ear.  The  ten  best  ears 
in  a bushel  of  corn,  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  are  worth  more  than 
all  the  rest  for  seed  purposes.  The  farmer  who  has  purchases  his 
first  lot  of  seed  corn  in  the  ear  is  apt  to  be  dissatisfied  with  its  ap- 
pearance. He  is  apt  to  expect  show  ears.  He  should  remember, 
however,  that  there  are  but  few  show  ears  in  a wagon  load  of  com 
and  they  are  worth  very  much  more  than  he  has  paid  for  what 
he  got. 

As  a rule  it  is  not  wise  to  import  seed  corn  from  a distance, 
because  it  may  not  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  where  it  is  to  be 
used.  If  a farmer  can  get  good  seed  from  his  own  crop,  or  from  a 
neighbor,  it  will  usually  give  better  results  than  imported  seed.  When 
it  is  necessary  to  import  seed,  or  a different  variety  is  desired,  it 
should  be  secured  from  a place  in  the  same  latitude.  When  one 
goes  south  for  seed  corn  he  is  apt  to  get  something  that  will  not 
mature  in  his  locality  and  if  he  goes  north  he  is  likely  to  get  some- 
thing that  is  earlier  than  necessary  and  too  small.  As  a rule,  every 
degree  north  or  south  of  a given  point  means  eight  or  ten  days  dif- 
ference in  the  tiiuQ  of  ripening.  Going  east  or  west  makes  much 
less  difference.  Seed  corn  brought  from  a distance  will  usually  take 


283 


•two  or  three  years  to  accustom  itself  to  the  new  conditions  before 
it  will  give  the  best  results,  no  matter  how  good  the  seed  may  be. 
On  this  account  only  small  quantities  should  be^mported. 

If  seed  corn  must  be  purchased,  the  price  should  be  least  con- 
sidered. The  quality  and  purity  of  breeding  are  the  important  fac- 
tors to  be  taken  into  account,  as  there  may  easily  be  a difference  of 
several  bushels  per  acre  in  its  yielding  power.  The  seed  that  will 
yield  five  bushels  more  per  acre  is  easily  worth  $10  more  per  bushel. 
Many  experiments  have  proven  that  the  quality  of  the  seed  may 
make  a very  much  greater  difference  than  this. 

Much  of  the  seed  corn  sold  by  so-called  seed  corn  dealers  is 
nothing  more  than  crib  corn.  This  state  of  affairs  can  be  remedied 
only  by  the  purchasers  insisting  on  being  supplied  with  corn  on  the 
ear,  and  accepting  it  only  after  they  have  satisfied  themselves  as  to 
its  quality  and  germinating  power.  All  honest  dealers  will  guaran- 
tee their  corn.  There  are  a number  of  good  dealers  in  the  State  who 
breed  their  own  corn,  and  these  men  deserve  to  get  a good  price  for 
what  they  offer  for  seed. 

The  Final  Selection  oe  Seed  Ears. 

In  spare  time  during  the  winter,  or  at  least  several  weeks  before 
planting  time,  the  farmer  should  go  over  his  seed  corn  carefully  and 
cull  out  the  poor  ears.  The  best  of  the  best  should  be  laid  aside 
for  the  best  field.  A good  way  to  proceed  is  to  first  select  the  single 
ear  that  most  nearly  represents  the  type  wanted,  as  to  shape  of  ear 
and  character  of  kernel,  and  then,  with  this  ear  in  one  hand,  the 
others  should  be  compared  with  it,  one  at  a time,  until  a sufficient 
number  have  been  selected.  To  facilitate  this  work  a table  of  some 
kind  should  be  provided, — a single  board  will  do, — upon  which  the 
ears  may  be  laid  a row  at  a time.  Plenty  of  time  should  be  given  to 
this  operation.  A lover  of  good  corn  will  find  the  work  very  inter- 
esting and  the  profitableness  of  it  cannot  be  over-estimated.  After 
this  careful  selection  the  ears  are  ready  to  be  tested  for  vitality. 

Testing  the  Vitality  of  Seed  Corn. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  neglect  the  simple  vitality  test.  Many 
a field  has  to  be  planted  a second  time  on  account  of  imperfect  ger- 


284 


mination,  and  very  often  a poor  stand  is  allowed  to  remain  or  is 
patched  up  by  replanting  odd  hills  by  hand,  which  is  often  labor 
thrown  away,  except  for  the  fodder,  because  replanted  hills,  seldom 
produce  perfect  ears,  there  being  insufficient  pollen  to  properly 
fertilize  them. 

No  one  can  pick  out  all  the  ears  of  imperfect  vitality  by  a me- 
chanical examination.  Most  farmers  have  learned  this  from  the 
experience  of  the  last  two  years.  It  is  easy  to  pick  out  the  ears  that 
are  visibly  injured,  but  there  are  many  cases  of  destroyed  or 
weakened  vitality  that  cannot  be  seen,  even  by  the  most  expert  ex- 
aminer. Every  weax  germ  means  a weak  plant  and  a small  yield. 
Nearly  every  corn  field  will  show  many  hills  with  one  or  more 
weak  plants.  These  are  nearly  always  directly  due  to  weak  germs. 

There  are  many  simple  methods  of  making  the  germination 
Itst,  but  in  all  cases  each  ear  should  be  tested  by  itself.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  as  a rule  the  testing  of  a few  kernels  picked  at 
random  from  different  parts  of  the  ear  will  safely  determine  whether 
or  not  the  ear  should  bo  used  for  seed.  About  five  kernels  should 
be  taken  from  each  ear  and  kept  separate,  and  the  ear  from  which 
they  can'.o  must  be  marked  or  placed  in  such  a way  that  it  can  be 
readily  located  after  the  test  is  made.  In  selecting  the  kernels  for 
the  1 est,  take  one  from  near  the  butt,  three  from  various  parts  of  the 
middle  portion  and  one  from  near  the  tip.  Look  for  elevated  or 
swollen  spots  on  the  ear  from  which  to  take  the  kernels.  If  there  are 
any  weak  germs,  they  are  likely  to  be  found  on  the  swollen  spots, 
because  there  the  cob  was  probably  more  or  less  spongy  and  retained 
moisture  after  the  rest  of  the  ear  was  dry  and  out  of  danger  of  being 
injured. 

The  requisites  for  germination  are  moisture,  warmth  and  air. 
Any  chamber  or  vessel  in  which  these  can  be  provided  will  answer 
the  purpose.  The  exact  method  employed  will  be  largely  a matter 
of  convenience.  An  ordinary  dinner  plate  with  a double  fold  of 
-moistened  muslin  between  which  the  kernels  can  be  laid,  covered 
with  another  plate  to  prevent  too  rapid  drying,  makes  a very  good 
germinating  chamber.  A shallow  box  into  which  several  lots  of 
kernels  may  be  laid  between  folds  of  moistened  paper,  and  covered 
with  a lid  will  do.  A shallow  box  containing  moist  earth,  sand,  or 


285 


sawdust  in  which  the  kernels  may  be  planted  may  also  be  handly. 

In  any  case  the  tester  should  be  put  in  a warm  place,  but  not  too 
near  the  stove.  The  temperature  of  the  ordinary  living  room  is 
about  right,  provided  that  it  does  not  become  colder  than  55  degrees 
during  the  night.  , 

A convenient  tester  can  be  made  as  follows : — Take  an  ordinary 
bread  baking  pan  of  large  size  and  fill  it  with  clean  sand  or  saw- 
dust. Then  take  a long  piece  of  strong  cord  or  light  wire  and  wrap 
it  tightly  around  the  pan  at  intervals  of  about  an  inch  and  a half, 
crosswise  and  lengthwise,  thus  marking  off  the  surface  into  inch  and 
a half  squares.  The  squares  may  be  more  permanently  marked  off 
by  fastening  the  cross  wires  securely  into  the  sides  and  ends  of  the 
pan  or  tray,  or  by  making  a galvanized  iron  cover  with  perfora- 
tions of  the  required  size.  Into  each  of  these  squares  the  kernels 
of  a single  ear  may  be  planted,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  keep 
'each  lot  separate  and  easily  locate  them.  The  kernels  need  not  be 
completely  hurried.  Ordinary  soil  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
sand  or  sawdust,  but  the  latter  are  clearner  to  handle.  Instead  of 
the  baking  pans  a shallow  tray  of  boards  may  be  made  and  fitted 
with  the  cross  wires  as  described.  A tray  two  by  three  feet  in  size 
will  be  large  enough  to  make  individual  ear  tests  of  about  five 
bushels  at  one  time.  If  much  corn  is  to  be  tested,  several  of  these 
testers  should  be  provided.  Some  convenient  system  of  arranging 
the  ears  on  a floor,  table  or  shelf  must  be  employed,  so  that  the  ear 
corresponding  to  a certain  square  in  the  tester  may  be  readily  lo- 
cated. The  material  in  the  tester  should  be  kept  thoroughly  moist, 
but  not  wet,  and  when  the  kernels  have  been  placed,  the  whole 
should  be  covered  with  a cloth  or  gunny  sack  to  prevent  drying  of 
the  surface. 

The  tester  should  be  placed  in  a room  ranging  around  70  de^ 
grees  F.  in  temperature,  as  stated  above.  All  kernels  which  do  not  . 
send  out  vigorous  root  and  stem  sprouts  within  five  days,  under 
these  conditions,  should  be  considered  as  too  weak  to  germinate 
properly  under  ordinary  field  conditions.  If  the  germination  of 
any  lot  of  kernels  is  unsatisfactory,  the  ear  from  which  they  came 
should  be  discarded.  About  95  per  cent  of  the  kernels  should  ger- 
minate strongly  within  the  five  days. 


286 


Preparation  for  Planting. 

After  the  seed  ears  have  been  properly  selected  and  their  vitality 
tested  as  above  described,  they  are  ready  to  be  shelled  and  the  grain 
prepared  for  planting.  The  small  and  irregular  kernels  at  the  tips 
of  the  ears  and  the  large  irregular  ones  at  the  butts  must  be  shelled 
off  and  discarded.  Irregular  kernels  in  the  body  of  the  ear  should 
also  be  discarded  as  completely  as  possible  so  that  only  those  kernels 
which  are  of  uniform  size  and  shape  may  go  to  the  planter.  This 
is  very  important,  because  it  is  impossible  for  a planter  to  drop  uni- 
formly the  required  number  of  grains  per  hill  if  they  are  not  of 
the  same  size  and  shape.  A uniform  stand  of  plants  can  be  secured 
only  when  the  seed  is  uniform.  Many  a poor  stand  of  corn  is  due 
solely  to  ununiform  seed.  It  would  surprise  most  farmers  to  learn 
how  imperfect  the  stand  is  in  their  best  fields.  One  has  to  count 
the  missing  hills  on  an  acre,  and  those  that  have  less  than  the  re- 
quired number  of  plants,  to  learn  the  truth. 

It  is  a good  plant  to  use  a set  of  screens  of  two  sizes  through 
which  to  pass  the  shelled  corn,  discarding  that  which  is  retained 
on  the  larger  and  that  which  passes  through  the  smaller.  The  grain 
should  then  be  spread  out  thinly  and  careft#y  examined  for  broken, 
mouldy  or  otherwise  damaged  kernels,  which  must  be  picked  out 
by  hand.  When  seed  of  ununiform  size  must  be  used  it  should  be 
graded,  by  means  of  sieves,  into  large,  medium  and  small  sizes,  and 
a suitable  planter  plate  used  for  each  size. 

When  one  considers  how  easily  a difference  in  the  yield  of 
several  bushels  per  acre  may  be  caused  by  the  character  of  the 
stand,  he  will  readily  see  the  wisdom  of  spending  a little  extra 
time  in  preparing  the  seed.  A couple  of  hours  spent  in  picking  the 
ununiform,  rotten  and  broken  kernels  out  of  a bushel  of  seed  may 
earn  several  bushels  of  corn.  The  observing  farmer  will  soon  learn 
• that. he  may  easily  earn  dollars  for  hours  spent  in  preparing  his 
seed  corn. 

Testing  THE  Planter. 

After  the  seed  corn  has  been  perfectly  prepared  there  is  still 
one  more  important  thing  to  be  done,  and  that  is  to  test  the  planter 
and  make  sure  that  it  will  drop  the  required  number  of  kernels  at 


287 


least  95  times  out  of  a hundred.  The  planter-  should  be  set  up  on  a 
clean  floor  or  on  some  boards  and  operated  by  hand,  using  plates 
with  different  sized  openings  until  the  pair  is  found  that  will  drop 
the  desired  number  of  kernels  every  time,  if  possible.  Most  up-to- 
date  planters  are  supplied  with  a sufficient  number  of  plates  of 
different  sizes  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  select  the  right  set  for 
the  corn  to  be  planted.  If  the  plates  do  not  quite  do  the  work  as 
required,  they  must  be  filed  or  drilled  until  they  will.  Generally  a 
very  little  of  such  adjusting  is  all  that  will  be  necessary  to  give  a 
perfect  stand  of  the  desired  number  of  plant  per  hill.  A poorly  ad- 
justed planter  may  easily  offset  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
well  selected  seed  and,  therefore,  this  simple  testing  and  adjusting 
should  never  be  neglected. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  in  this  bulletin  to  discuss  the  subject  of 
field  culture  of  corn.  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  proper  fertilization 
and  general  field  treatment  of  corn  are  subjects  large  enough  to  re- 
quire a separate  bulletin  and  will  be  treated  fully  at  some  future 
time.  Well  selected  seed  is  only  one  factor  in  profitable  corn  rais- 
ing. 

As  a rule,  corn  should  be  planted  in  hills,  or  check-rowed,  if 
only  for  the  reason  that  it  may  be  better  tended  by  cultivating  both 
ways.  No  definite  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  thickness  of  plant- 
ing. The  best  distance  between  rows  and  the  number  of  stalks  per 
hill,  or  the  distance  between  stalks  in  drills,  will  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  variety  and  the  character  of  the  soil  and  climate.  Under 
average  conditions,  with  an  average  sized  variety,  about  ten  thou- 
sand stalks  per  acre  will  usually  give  the  best  results.  The  richer 
the  soil  the  thicker  may  be  the  planting  and  the  larger  the  variety 
the  thinner  it  should  be.  The  best  thickness  must  be  determined  by 
each  farmer  for  himself. 

The  ground  should  be  deeply  and  finely  prepared  before  plant- 
ing. No  amount  of  cultivation  after  planting  can  make  up  for  a 
poorly  prepared  seed-bed.  Cultivation  should  be  thorough  from 
the  beginning  of  growth  until  the  tassels  appear,  and  frequent 
enough  to  keep  a clean,  fine,  loose  mulch  of  earth,  two  to  three  inches 


288 


m depth,  on  the  surface  throughout  the  season.  Before  the  corn  is 
large  enough  for  the  ordinary  cultivator  a light  harrow  or  weeder, 
which  will  break  any  crust  that  may  have  formed  and  kill  small 
weeds,  should  be  used.  The  first  and  second  times  over  with  the 
regular  cultivator  should  generally  be  deep,  but  subsequent  cultiva- 
tions must  be  shallow  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  roots.  It  should 
never  be  necessary  to  use  a large  shoveled  cultivator.  The  small 
shovel  stirs  the  ground  more  completely  and  leaves  it  more  level, 
causing  less  evaporation  of  moisture.  After  the  corn  is  too  high 
for  the  two-horse  cultivator  a one-horse  implement  should  be  used. 
The  corn  field  should  never  be  “laid  by”  before  the  tassels  appear. 

Types  of  Ears  and  Kernels. 

The  following  photographs  of  ears  and  kernels  were  prepared 
with  a view  to  serving  as  aids  in  the  selection  of  good  seed  corn. 
They  illustrate  desirable  and  undesirable  types  of  ears  and  kernels, 
not  in  a glaring  way,  but  in  such  a way  that  with  a little  study  good 
and  poor  seed  corn  may  be  recognized. 


289 


Fig.  I. 


Good  and  Poor  Shapes  or  Ears. 

A perfect  ear  of  corn  should  be  full  and  strong  in  the  middle 
portion,  indicating  a strong  constitution.  It  should  retain  its  size 
to  near  the  tip,  giving  a large  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  The  ker- 
nels should  also  retain  a uniform  size  and  depth  to  near  the  tip, 
and  the  rows  should  be  straight.  The  tip  should  taper  but  slightly 
and  then  round  off  in  a neat  oval. 

Ears  I and  2 represent  ideal  forms.  They  are  well  proportioned 
and  strongly  developed. 

Ear  No.  3 is  too  heavy  and  blunt  at  the  tip,  indicating  coarse- 
ness. It  is  also  somewhat  depressed  or  weak  near  the  butt. 

Ear  No.  4 is  decidedly  weak  and  imperfect  at  the  butt,  denoting 
a weak  constitution. 

Ear  No.  5 is  too  tapering  and  the  tip  is  too  pointed,  showing 
weakness.  The  kerntds  towards  the  tip  are  shallow,  rounded,  and 
imuniform  with  the  rest  of  the  ear.  The  proportion  of  corn  to  cob 
is  relatively  small.  Ears  3,  4 and  5 are  all  undesirable  for  seed. 


290 


Fig.  2. 

Differe^nt  Sized  Kernels. 

The  above  cut  shows  wide  variations  in  size  and  type  of 
kernels.  They  are  so  different  in  size  and  shape  that  if  shelled  to- 
gether for  seed  no  planter  could  possibly  drop  the  same  number 
of  kernels  per  hill.  Ears  2 and  4 would  go  together  very  well,  but 
otherwise  no  two  would  do  for  the  same  lot  of  seed.  The  kernels 
on  ear  No.  5 are  much  too  large  for  any  dent  variety,  while  those 
on  ear  No.  3 are  rather  small,  besides  being  more  or  less  ununiform. 


291 


Fig.  3. 

Uniform  and  Ununiform  Kfrnfus. 

The  kernels  in  a good  seed  ear  should  be  uniform  in  size  and 
shape  throughout  the  ear,  and  all  ears  to  be  used  together  should 
have  similar  kernels. 

Ears  I and  2 have  fine  types  of  kernels,  of  very  uniform  size 
and  shape. 

Ear  No.  3 has  a good  form,  but  is  not  a good  seed  car.  A close 
examination  will  show  that  the  kernels  are,  many  of  them,  weak 
and  of  ununiform  sha])c,  varying  much  in  thickness. 

The  kernels  of  car  No.  4 arc  much  too  irregular  in  sha])e. 

Ear  No.  5 has  several  broken  rows.  'I'lic  kernels  arc  too  thick 
and  also  otherwise  ununiform. 


292 


Fig.  4. 

Good  and  Bad  Spacing  of  Kernels  at  the  Cob. 

The  kernels  in  the  rows,  as  well  as  the  rows  of  kernels,  should 
fit  closely  together  at  the  cob,  showing  a full,  strong  development. 
Wide  spaces  are  often  found  and  are  due  to  shrunken  or  pointed 
tips.  The  tip  end  of  the  kernel  should  be  strong  and  full,  giving 
room  for  a large,  deep  germ.  Since  the  germ  is  largest  at  the  tip 
of  the  kernel  and  contains  a large  per  cent  of  protein  and  nearly 
all  the  oil,  a strong  tip  is  essential  to  a high  feeding  value.  • 

Ears  I and  4 show  wide  spaces  between  the  kernels  at  the  cob, 
No.  4 being  particularly  bad.  The  tips  of  the  kernels  are  very  much 
shrunken,  of  poor  vitality  and  low  feeding  value.  Such  space  is 
very  objectionable.  Both  ears  look  good  from  the  outside. 

Ears  2 and  3 are  fairly  perfect,  the  kernels  fitting  closely  to- 
gether from  tip  to  crown.  Ear  No.  5 is  also  fair,  but  shows  quite 
a number  of  small  spaces  at  the  cob. 


293 


Fig.  5. 


Furrows  BErrwE:E;N  Rows. 


The  edges  of  a well  shaped  kernel  should  be  almost  straight, 
and  the  rows  of  kernels  should  fit  together  fairly  closely.  The  fur- 
rows should  be  merely  wide  enough  to  admit  air  to  facilitate  drying. 
The  spacing  at  the  crowns  may  be  too  close,  especially  in  large  ears, 
making  them  dry  too  slowly  and  liable  to  mould. 

The  furrows  on  ear  No.  3 are  far  too  wide,  indicating  a small 
proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  The  furrows  on  car  No.  5 are  also  too 
wide. 

The  rows  on  ear  No.  2 are  rather  close  together  and  in  places 
the  kernels  have  pinched  each  other  out  of  the  cob. 

Kars  I and  4 arc  very  nicely  s])accd. 


294 


Fig.  6. 


Dekp  and  Shallow  Kernels. 

The  kernels  should  be  deep  throughout  the  length  of  the  ear, 
as  shown  in  ear  No.  i.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  have  too  small 
a cob,  which  would  indicate  a weakened  constitution  and  small 
yielding  power. 

The  kernels  on  ears  2 and  5 are  too  shallow,  showing  too  small 
a proportion  of  corn  to  cob. 

The  kernels  on  ear  No.  3 are  too  shallow  near  the  tip,  while 
ear  No.  4 is  fairly  good  and  ear  No.  i is  excellent. 


295 


Fig.  7. 


Five  Good  Ears. 


i-ig. 

formity. 


7 shows  five  cars  that  are  almost  ideal  in  ty|)e  and  nni- 
They  need  no  a];olo"y. 


296 


Fig.  8. 

Five  Poor  Ears. 

All  of  the  ears  in  the  above  cut  are  undesirable  for  seed  pur- 
poses. 

Ear  No.  I is  weak  in  development  a short  distance  above  the 
butt  and  the  kernels  are  too  thick  and  irregular  in  shape,  besides 
being  rather  smooth  and  shallow. 

Ear  No.  2 is  very  objectionable  on  account  of  its  weak,  chaffy, 
shrunken  kernels. 

Ear  No.  3 is  fairly  strong  in  type  but  its  kernels  are  too 
irregular. 

Ear  No.  4 has  kernels  that  are  too  much  rounded  on  the  edges, 
rather  smooth  and  much  too  shallow,  showing  a small  proportion  of 
corn  to  cob. 

Ear  No.  5 is  much  too  tapering  and  poined,  besides  having  a 
large  proportion  of  ununiform  kernels. 


297 


Fig.  9. 

Various  Types  of  Kernels. 

No.  2 is  an  excellent  pair  of  kernels,  and  4 and  5 are  also  good. 
No.  I is  rather  pointed  and  rounded  on  the  edges.  Pairs  6 and  12 
are  much  too  pointed  and  weak  at  the  tips.  No.  3 is  much  too  large. 
Pairs  8,  10  and  ii  are  too  short  and  rounded,  No.  10  being  par- 
ticularly poor  in  shape.  No.  7 is  thin  and  chaffy,  and  No.  9 is  too 
narrow. 

A good  kernel  must  be  full  and  strong  at  the  tip,  giving  room 
for  a large  germ,  which  is  essential  to  strong  vitality  and  high  feed- 
ing value.  The  edges  should  he  nearly  straight,  but  they  must  con- 
verge towards  the  tip  sufficiently  to  allow  the  rows  to  fit  closely  to- 
gether. In  other  words,  the  kernel  should  represent  the  thick  end 
cf  a wedge  in  shajie.  A good  kernel  must  also  be  of  uniform  thick- 
ness from  crown  to  tij).  'J'he  right  hand  kernel  of  pair  No.  2 is  al- 
most ideal  in  size  and  sha])e  for  a medium  sized  dent  variety, 
measuring  a strong  five-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  width,  five-eighths 
(jf  an  inch  in  length  and  nearly  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 


298 


Fig.  10. 


Immature  and  Damaged  Kernels. 

A mature  kernel  should  have  a clean  tip,  a uniform  color  on  back 
and  front,  a smooth,  full  germ,  and  a fresh,  glossy  appearance. 

Pair  No.  i has  chaff  and  bits  of  cob  adhering  to  the  tip.  No.  2 
is  blistered  on  back  and  front.  If  the  skin  over  the  germ  is  blistered, 
it  indicates  that  the  germ  has  started  to  grow.  The  left  hand  ker- 
nel in  pair  No.  3 has  light  colored  spots  on  the  back,  an  indication 
of  immaturity.  The  left  hand  kernel  shows  a well  matured  back  of 
uniform  color.  Pair  No.  4 shows  broken  tips,  the  tips  having  re- 
mained in  the  cob,  exposing  the  germs,  which  would  be  more  liable, 
to  decay  in  cold,  wet  ground.  Pair  No.  5 is  badly  blistered  and 
off  color  on  back  and  front.  Pair  No.  6 is  cracked  and  decayed 
near  the  tips.  Pair  No.  7 has  a light,  dull  color  and  is  generally 
“chaffy  " No.  8 is  a pair  of  well  matured,  strong  kernels. 


299 


Score  Card  eor  Corn  Judging. 

The  following  is  the  score  card  of  the  Indiana  Corn  Grower’s 
Association,  with  brief  explanations  and  rules  for  judging,  as  re- 
vised and  adopted  by  the  association  at  the  annual  meeting  held 
January  4,  1905. 

The  purpose  of  the  score  card  is  to  aid  the  judge  or  student 
in  corn  judging  to  arrive  at  a just  conclusion  as  to  the  relative 
merits  of  samples  of  corn.  The  scale  of  points  may  be  used  in 
judging  either  single  ears  or  exhibits  made  up  of  any  number  of 
ears. 

Nothing  but  practice  and  the  exercise  of  sound  sense  will  en- 
able one  to  use  the  score  card  correctly.  The  explanations  of  the 
points,  given  below,  are  merely  suggestions  of  what  should  be  looked 
for. 


The  rules  for  judging  are  based  upon  an  exhibit  of  ten  ears. 


300 


CORN  SCORE  CARD 

OF  THE 

INDIANA  CORN  GROWER’S  ASSOCIATION. 


Name  of  Variety. 


Table  No 


Name  of  Scorer Sample  No., 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1.  Trueness  to 

Type  or  Breed  10 

Characteristics 

2.  Shape  of  Ears  5 

3.  Color  of  Grain 
and  Cob 

i 

1 

1 

4.  Vitality  or  Seed  ..p, 

Condition 

i 

j 

5,  Tips  of  Ears  5 

1 

1 

6.  Butts  of  Ears  5 



7.  Kernel  Uniformity  10 

1 

8.  Kernel  Shape  iO 

9.  Length  of  Ears  5 

10.  Circumference 
of  Ears 

11.  Space  between 
rows  and  kernels 

12.  Proportion  of  , - 

Corn  to  Cob 

Total  - - 100 

1 

REMARKS  AND  REASONS  FOR  CUTS; 


Explanation  ol  Points  of  Corn  Score:  Card. 

Note  A.  Cuts — Where  the  number  of  points  to  be  cut  is  not 
specified,  the  scorer  must  use  his  best  judgment  and  cut  each  off 
ear  according  to  its  degree  of  variance  from  the  standard  and  the 
value  of  the  perfect  ear. 

Note  B.  Disqualifications — A white  cob  in  yellow  corn  or  a 
red  cob  in  white  corn  should  disqualify  the  exhibit.  An  ear  whose 
vitality  has  been  killed  should  also  disqualify  the  exhibit. 

Note  C.  Size  of  Exhibits — Each  exhibit  should  consist  of  ten 

ears . 


1 Trueness  to  Type  or  Breed  Characteristics.  lo  Points — 
All  the  ears  in  the  exhibit  should  be  true  to  the  variety  type  in  size, 
shape,  color,  indentation,  size  and  shape  of  kernel,  and  other  breed 
chacteristics . 

2 Shape  of  Ears.  5 Points — The  Shape  of  the  ears  should 
conform  to  the  variety  type.  The  ear  should  be  full  and  strong  in 
the  middle  portion  and  should  not  taper  too  rapidly  towards  the  tip. 
The  rows  should  be  straight. 

3 Color  of  Grain  and  Cob.  10  Points — The  color  of  the  grain 
should  be  true  to  variety,  even  in  shade,  and  free  from  mixture. 
White  corn  should  have  white  cobs  and  yellow  corn,  red  cobs.  For 
one  or  two  mixed  or  crossed  kernels  on  an  ear  cut  one-fourth  point, 
for  three  or  four  cut  one-half  point,  for  five  or  six  cut  three-fourths 
point  and  for  more  than  six  cut  one  point.  Varying  shades  of 
color  in  grain  or  cob  should  be  cut  according  to  the  degree  of  vari- 
ance from  the  standard. 

4 Vitality  or  Seed  Condition.  10  Points — The  ears  should  be 
well  matured,  firm  and  sound.  The  germ  should  be  uninjured, 
large,  bright,  fresh  and  vigorous  looking 

5 Tips  of  Ears.  5 Points — The  form  of  the  tip  should  be  reg- 
ular and  not  too  tapering.  It  should  be  well  covered  with  straight 
rows  of  regular  kernels,  of  uniform  size  and  shape.  Proportion  of 
tip  covered  must  be  considered,  but  iregular,  shallow  or  small  ker- 
nels may  be  more  objectionable  than  uncovered  tips.  Cut  one-half 
point  for  each  tip  exposed  one  inch.  For  irregularities  and  lesser 


302 

exposures  cut  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  point  according  to  judg- 
ment . 

6 Butts  of  Ears.  5 Points — The  rows  of  kernels  should  ex- 
tend in  regular  order  over  the  end  of  the  cob,  leaving  a depression 
when  the  shank  is  removed  Open,  swelled,  expanded,  flattened  and 
pinched  butts  are  objectionable.  Cut  from  one-tenth  to  one-half 
point  according  to  judgment. 

7 Kernel  Uniformity.  10  Points — The  kernels  of  all  the  ears 
In  the  exhibit  should  be  uniform  in  size,  shape,  color  and  indentation 
and  true  to  the  variety  type. 

8 Kernel  Shape.  10  Points — The  kernels  should  be  deep  and 

so  shaped  that  their  edges  touch  from  tip  to  crown . The  tips  of  the 
Icernels  should  be  full  and  strong,  giving  room  for  large  strong 
germs,  which  insures  vigor  as  well  as  high  feeding  value.  Very 
small  or  very  large  kernels  are  undesirable . . , 

9.  Length  of  Ears.  5 Points — The  length  of  the  ears  should 
conform  to  the  standard  for  the  variety.  Uniformity  in  length  is 
desirable.  Add  together  the  deficiencies  and  excesses  in  length  and 
for  each  inch  so  obtained,  cut  the  exhibit  one-half  point. 

10  Circumference  of  Ears.  5 Points — The  circumference  of 
each  ear  should  conform  to  the  standard  for  the  variety,  or  should  be 
in  symmetery  with  the  length.  ^Measure  the  circumference  at  one- 
third  the  distance  from  butt  to  tip  of  ear  and  for  each  inch  of  the 
sum  of  the  deficiencies  and  excesses,  cut  the  exhibit  one-half  point. 

11  Space  Between  Rows  and  Kernels.  10  Points— The  fur- 
rows between  the  rows  of  kernels  should  be  wide  enough  to  permit 
the  ear  to  dry  out  readily,  but  not  so  wide  as  to  lose  in  proportion 
of  corn  to  cob.  Space  between  kernels  at  the  cob,  in  either  direc- 
tion, is  highly  objectionable,  denoting  immaturity,  lack  of  vitality, 
low  feeding  value  and  a small  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.  Space  of 
this  kind  should  be  cut  heavily. 

12  Proportion  of  Corn  to  Cob.  15  Points — The  proportion  of 
corn  to  cob  should  be  determined  by  weight  and  should  conform  to 
the  standard  for  the  variety.  For  each  per  cent  below  standard  cut 
ihe  exhibit  one  and  one-half  points. 


303 


Gene:raIv  Standard  of  Perfection  for  Indiana. 

A perfect  ear  of  corn  should  be  cylindrical,  or  nearly  so,  in 
shape.  The  length  should  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  and  the  cir- 
cumference should  be  three-quarters  of  the  length.  The  rows 
should  be  straight  and  not  less  than  sixteen  in  number.  The  ker- 
nels should  be  well  formed,  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  and  not 
more  than  seven  to  the  inch  in  the  rows.  The  proportion  of  corn 
to  cob  should  be  not  less  than  86  per  cent. 


304 


II.  PROGRESS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  CORN 
IMPROVEMENT. 

A number  of  experiments  have  been  begun  on  the  Station  farm 
and  in  various  sections  of  the  State  with  a view  to  ultimately  im- 
proving the  quality  and  yielding  power  of  corn.  Reports  of  the 
progress  of  some  of  these  experiments  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

Indiana  already  has  a number  of  excellent  varieties  of  corn  and 
it  is  believed  that  these  can  be  still  further  improved  by  closer  at- 
tention to  selective  breeding.  The  use  of  the  best  existing  varieties 
is  still  confined  to  a comparatively  few  farmers,  and  much  profitable 
work  may  be  done  in  their  further  dissemination.  This  is  being 
attempted  by  local  variety  testing,  and  by  breeding  from  individual 
ears  of  the  varieties  which  give  greatest  promise  in  each  locality. 
Local  breeding  plots  are  being  established,  where  systematic  work 
can  be  done. 

Tests  oe  Varieties  of  Corn. 

In  the  spring  of  1903  a series  of  corn  variety  tests  were  un- 
dertaken in  various  parts  of  the  State  in  co-operation  with  students 
of  the  School  of  Agriculture  The  number  of  tests  and  the  num- 
ber of  varieties  tested  were  considerably  increased  in  1904,  and  many 
progressive  farmers  joined  in  the  work.  The  Station  furnishes 
the  seed  and  gives  directions  as  to  methods  of  planting,  general 
treatment,  determination  of  yields,  etc.,  while  the  farmers  provide 
the  land  and  necessary  labor  for  the  work. 

The  object  of  these  variety  tests  is  to  determine  the  varieties 
best  adapted  to  the  various  sections  of  the  State  and  to  bring  them 
to  the  notice  of  the  people.  The  wide  variations  in  climatic  and 
soil  conditions  between  different  sections  of  the  State  make  it  im- 
possible to  secure  results  at  any  one  point  which  can  be  applied  to 
localities  at  any  considerable  distance  from  it,  so  that  the  only  way 
to  make  satisfactory  tests  is  to  conduct  them  in  the  localities  where 
the  results  are  to  be  applied.  Testing  the  adaptations  of  existing 


305 


varieties  is  a necessary  preliminary  to  the  most  effective  work  in 
improving  corn  for  any  locality. 

On  the  whole  these  co-operative  tests  have  been  very  satisfac- 
tory and  by  continuing  them  we  shall  be  able,  in  the  course  of  a 
lew  years,  to  determine  pretty  definitely  which  varieties  are  best 
suited  to  the  various  sections  of  the  State. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  farmers  who  reported  successful 
tests.  Our  thanks  are  due  these  men  for  the  interest  they  have 
taken  in  the  work  and  the  labor  and  attention  given  to  it. 

R.  E.  Anderson,  A.  F.  Batt,  C.  B.  Benjamin,  J.  D.  Bock- 
stahler.  Chapman  Bros.,  J.  G.  Chambers,  J.  D.  DeVore,  E.  F. 
Diehl,  E.  M.  Elliott,  W.  H.  Favinger,  Charles  Furnas,  John  Gar- 
denour,  A.  B.  Greenwood,  G.  C.  Graverson,  F.  M.  Gresso,  E.  E. 
Jones,  H.  H.^  James,  Geo.  V.  Kell,  C.  F.  Kerr,  J.  W.  Kunkel, 
E.  S.  Lemmon,  P.  C.  C.  Lamberson,  R.  P.  Lamb,  A.  B.  Lantz, 
A.  G.  Mace,  Walter  Mertz,  A.  B.  Osmon,  A.  J.  Pielemeier,  C. 
W.  Power,  Lee  Shrader,  J.  F.  Schroeder,  F.  G.  Salisbury,  Mell 
Swallow,  A.  W.  Toms,  A.  E.  Thompson,  C.  P.  Voile,  L.  M. 
Vogler,  O.  B.  Whisler,  Jerome  Zechiel,  Omer  Hougham. 

Our  thanks  are  also  due  the  following,  who  have  donated  seed 
corn  for  experimental  purposes : — 

W.  A.  Alexander,  L.  B.  Clore,  E.  F.  Diehl,  J.  P.  Davis, 
Ft  P.  Hoopengardner,  A.  G.  Mace,  J.  R.  Overstreet,  Fred 
Palin,  Marley  Riley,  H.  M.  Stout,  A.  E.  Thompson,  L.  M. 
Vogler,  J.  D.  Whitesides. 

The  varieties  tested  were  selected,  so  far  as  possible,  with  a 
view  to  their  fitness  for  the  various  localities.  The  results  so  far 
indicate  that  a few  of  the  varieties  tested  in  each  section  have  partic- 
ularly desirable  qualities.  It  is  also  apparent  that  for  the  northern 
sections  of  the  State  really  desirable  varieties  are  scarce,  and  that 
there  is  much  room  for  improvement.  For  the  central  and  south- 
ern sections  several  excellent  varieties  exist,  and  the  greatest  need 
is  to  more  widely  disseminate  them. 

The  tables  below  are  so  arranged  as  to  show  the  total  and 
relative  yields  secured  in  each  test.  All  yields  are  calculated  to  the 
basis  of  a 90  per  cent  stand.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  State 
was  divided  into  six  sections,  corresponding  somewhat  to  differences 


3o6 


in  soil  and  climate.  It  is  now  apparent  that  for  future  work  the 
northern  divisions  will  have  to  be  redivided,  on  account  of  local 
differences . 


\’arietie;s  Tested. 


VARIETY 

ORIGIN  OF  SEED 

' RELATIVE 
SIZE 

! RELATIVE 
EARLTNESS 

Gibson  Co.  White 

Southern  Indiana 

Larg-e 

i Late 

Scott  Co.  White 

! 44 

I 

Vogler’s  White  Dent 

South  Central  Indiana.. 

1 “ 

Pride  of  Indiana 

(4  44 

1 “ 

Johnson  Co.  White  Dent 

44  44  44 

44 

1 

i 

Gold  Standard 

w 

b4 

; .. 

Boone  Co.  White 

Central  “ 

1 

Med.  to  Late... 

Silver  Mine 

Central  Illinois 

! “ 

\Tpdiiim 

Learning- 

44  44 

Med.  to  Large. . . 

I “ 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent 

44  44 

44  44  44  1 

i 

Riley’s  Favorite 

Central  Indiana 

Medium 

: Med.  to  Early.. 

Golden  F.qg-le 

Central  Illinois 

1 44  44  44 

Davis’  Favorite 

Central  Indiana 

44  4.  44 

Smith’s  Yellow  Dent 

Northern  “ 

Ra  rly 

Diehl’s  “O.  J.” 

1 

Funk’s  00  Dav 

Central  Illinois  

F.arly  Yellow  Dent 

Northern  Indiana 

Med.  to  Small  ... 
Small 

*‘ 

Golden  Surprise 

Central  Ohio 

i “ 

Yellow  Clarag-e 

1 . 

44 

White  Cap  Yellow  Dent 

Northern  “ 

“ 

“ 

Ohio  Early  Gold  Mine .. 

“ “ 

i “ 

“ 

1 


o 

o 

K 


C/3 


o 

22 

to 

o 


I 

I 

I 


L/1 

E- 

U-) 


>- 


tu 

S I 
< I 
> ! 

psi 

O 
O 
pu  i 

O 


on 

h- 

;:d 

on 

UJ 

P::i 


12: 

K 

H 

c-i 

c/i 

S 

o 

12: 


I 

i 


o 

Cl 

u 

:i 

C-i 

25 

a 


cc 

25 

X 

3 

X5 


307 


Steu- 

ben 

1904 

0 . m 01 

ojcTio’oioiifiajoo  M 

>n 

De- 

Kalb 

1904 

m ro  (M  i.'i 

O'— 'C'lcr;  fcoo  ^co 

U2  IS  Iff  Tf  -51  >S  Iff  ^ 

* * * * * * 

S i 
< ^ 

^ ^ 0 oc  — ' d ci  PC  O'. 

Wells 

1904 

90'. 

84. 

40. 

76. 

80. 

86. 

75. 

82. 

72. 

78. 

79. 

Whit- 

ley 

1904 

^ TP  -rr  0 cc 

3COO  Iff  oioooiff 

-f  Iff  re  -ii  Cff  Iff  Iff  Iff  -51  -51 

* * *«■*** 

Wa- 

bash 

1904 

42. 

48. 

54. 

48. 

46.2 

36. 

42. 

45.0 

Kosei- 

usko 

1903 

73.0 

68.5 

66.6 
88.6 
87.4 

81.6 

85.8 

— ^ 
^ 0 

CO 

OO'^COOOO  CDCOtJHIO  OCO 

1 I 

*to  Qo  yo  C'i  '^00^'^ 

lOlC  iCCOtO^kC 

* * 

Ful- 

ton 

1904 

(M  rH  40  _ ^QC 

Iff  0 00  ffi  oc  i-i  2ff  0 i'o 

ociffroco  MMeo-5i-5«  -51 

White 

1904 

' ei  0 0 0 M It*  0 ffj  eff  d -^on 

Pulas- 

ki 

1904 

47. 

49. 

46. 
43  5 

49.5 

38.5 

41.5 
*53.5 

48.9 

51. 

Starke 

1904 

10  •*-  -t-  00  -H-  -1-  40  4-  4- 

0 CO 

Por- 

ter 

1904 

Iff  iff  Iff  ff>  Iff  Iff 

ffi  -i  d ^7  ^ GO  i-  i-  Iff’ 

Ciicffcff  iffc-l 

* * -1  * * * 

Lake 

1904 

0 1-  0 CO  0 C-l  Cff  ffi  0 1--  -^Iff 

d d -ji  -f  cd  d P 23  ffj  d —^d 

l-  IS  Iff  -ffj  -5<  -ti  -f  10  Iff  23  Iff 

*****  #**  * 

C 0 
0 2 

42  0 

54.0 

46.0 

40.0 

62.0 

52.0 

48.0 
*78.0 

49.0 
'56.0 
*82.0 

1 « 
~ g 

0 00  000 

0 i-  d ©1  Iff 

Iff  -23  Iff  -0  1-  1-  : 

* * * * 

V.\KiKTiES  Tested 

Karlv  Yellow  Dent 

Smith's  Yellow  Dent 

Funk's  90  Day 

Diehl's  “O.  J.' 

Golden  Surprise 

Ohio  Early  Gold  Mine 

White  Cap  Yellow  Dent 

Yellow  Clarage  

Riley's  Favorite 

Davis’  Favorite 

Golden  Plagle  

Silver  Mine 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent 

Learning 

Boone  Co.  White 

Johnson  Co.  W^hite  

Home  'V’arietv— Av 

*Not  mature.  tReported  not  mature. 


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John- 

son 

1904 

57  6 
62.1 

52.3 

50.0 
59  0 

59.0 

58.0 

Fay- 

ette 

1904 

40  8 

44.5 
40.8 
48.3 
44  5 
29.7 

44.6 
48.3 

36.5 
48.3 

44.6 

48.3 

How- 

ard 

1904 

56  2 

54.4 

56.5 
61.2 

53.8 
48.2 

60.5 
62.2. 

51.4 

60.8 

54.5 

57  2 
61.7 

55 

o te  ® 

24.9 

30.6 

31.2 
31.8 
33.5 

32.2 

22 

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48.9 

49.6 

54.0 

52-2 

54.8 

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38.2 

43.2 
48 

38  2 

33.6 
38  2 

39.6 
33  6 
37  8 

38.2 

48 

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50  2 

50.9 

60.3 

48.4 

53.9 

52.5 

40.0 

39.0 
45  7 

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44.5 

44.5 

56.5 
54 
41 

39.8 

47.5 
54 

50.5 
38 

48 

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42.7 

44.7 

47.8 
56.6 
48.3 
51.1 

39.9 
48  3 

Hen- 

drieks 

1904 

35 

36 

33 

33 

31.. S 

30 

30 

31.5 

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1904 

40 
42.1 
51 

50.8 

51.4 

53 

57 

41 

Boone 

1904 

57 

58 
54 
56 

50 

56 

51 

57 
57 

57 

62 

Mont- 

gomery 

1904 

50 

53 

51 
50 

47 

48 

54 
66 

50 

45 

45 

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1903 

58.0 

50.0 

55.0 

60.0 

50.0 

50.0 

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1904 

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52.0 

52.0 

50.0 

40.0 

50.0 

50.0 

44.0 

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1904 

27.5 
55 
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42.5 

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45 

45 

50 

45 

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46.2 

54.7 

59.6 

41.7 
47.1 

Varieties  Tested 

Riley’s  Favorite 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

Learning 

Davi.s’  Favorite 

Gold  Standard 

Silver  Mine 

Boone  Co.  White 

John.son  Co.  White 

Pride  of  Indiana 

Vogler’s  White  Dent 

Scott  Co.  White 

Golden  Eagle 

Funk’s  90  Day 

Early  Yellow  Dent 

Smith’s  Yellow  Dent 

Diehl’s  “O.  J.” 

Gibson  Co.  White 

Home  Variety — Av 

310 


Examination  of  the  above  tables  shows  that  there  are  consid- 
erable variations  between  varieties  as  to  yielding  power,  but  the  re- 
sults of  one  or  two  years  tests  must  be  considered  quite  inconclusive 
' and  varieties  should  not  be  selected  hastily.  The  tests  will  have 
to  be  repeated  before  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 

Both  seasons  were  unusually  cool.  In  view  of  this  fact  it 
may  be  considered  that  some  of  the  earlier  varieties  which  are 
marked  immature  would  give  better  results  in  a normal  season, 

Bre^e^ding  Corn  for  Larger  Yields  and  Greater  Uniformity. 


A number  of  experiments  have  been  commenced  with  a view 
to  improving  the  yielding  power  of  corn  and  producing  more  uni- 
form types. 

Three  varieties  having  desirable  characteristics  were  chosen  for 
this  work.  A number  of  ears  of  almost  perfect  uniformity  were 
selected  from  several  bushels  of  good  seed  corn  of  each.  These 
lots  were  planted  in  separate  fields,  an  ear  to  a row.  The  better 
rows  and  the  very  poor  ones  were  detasseled  and  seed  for  the  next 
year’s  planting  was  selected  from  the  detasseled  rows  which  gave 
the  largest  yields  of  the  best  ears.  The  results  secured  from  the  most 
productive  ears  in  the  first  year’s  work  are  shown  in  the  table  be- 
low. An  equal  amount  of  corn  was  planted  in  each  row.  The 
yields  are  given  in  terms  of  bushels  per  acre. 


Experiment 
No 


Yields  Secured  in  Bushels  per  Acre. 


1 

Ear  No. 

4 yielded  at  the  rate  of  50.6  bu.  per  acre 

Three  Best 

“ 

6 “ 

46.7  ••  “ “ 

Ears 

8 - 

42.7 

2 

4 “ 

“ “ “ “ 60.0  “ “ “ 

Three  Best 

6 “ 

“ “ 65  0 “ “ 

Ears 

10  “ 

73.0  .,  “ “ 

3 

11 

72.0  “ “ 

Pour  Best 
Ears 

14  “ 

84.0  “ “ 

16  “ 

86.0 

19  “ 

71.0 

The  results  secured  in  three  other  experiments,  in  which  the 
ears  were  primarily  selected  for  their  protein  content,  are  given  in 
the  next  table. 


Experiment 

No. 

Ear  No. 

Yields  Secured 

Ear  No. 

Yields  Secured 

1 

1 

45  bu.  per  acre 

6 

74  bu.  per  acre 

2 

63  “ “ “ 

7 

86  “ “ “ 

3 

60  “ “ “ 

8 

51  “ “ “ 

4 

90  “ “ “ 

9 

49  “ “ .. 

5 

88  “ “ “ 

10 

35  “ “ 

2 

402 

56.0  bu.  per  acre 

411 

63.2  bu.  per  acre 

403 

70.1  “ “ “ 

3 

619 

56.0  bu.  per  acre 

611 

69.5  bu.  per  acre 

610 

53.6  “ “ “ 

615 

76.9  “ “ “ 

609 

72.3  “ “ “ 

616 

70.4  “ “ 

607 

71.7  “ “ “ 

603 

66.9  “ “ “ 

621 

72.9  “ “ “ 

605 

66.3  “ “ “ 

622 

51.8  “ “ 

601 

61.0  “ “ “ 

The  above  results  show  very  clearly  the  influence  of  individu- 
ality upon  productiveness.  By  selecting  seed  from  the  product  of 
the  ears  which  gave  the  largest  yields  of  good  type  we  expect  to  very 
materially  improve  the  prepotency  and  yielding  power  of  these 
varieties.  Similar  methods  of  selective  breeding,  as  described  in 
part  III  of  this  bulletin,  can  be  practiced  by  any  farmer  and  will 
be  found  not  only  interesting  but  highly  profitable. 


312 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  II  represents  one  of  the  breeding  plats  above  referred  to 
which  contained  two  very  poor  rows,  the  one  nearest  the  middle  of 
the  picture  being  particularly  weak.  The  germination  was  weak 
and  the  growth  very  backward  all  through  the  season.  The  two 
next  rows  to  the  right  are  especially  strong  and  vigorous. 


Effect  of  Limited  Nutrition  Upon  Percentage  of  Barren 

Stalks. 

In  the  spring  of  1903  an  experiment  was  begun  with  a view 
ot  studying  the  effect  of  limited  nutrition  upon  the  proportion  of 
barren  stalks  in  corn.  In  order  to  more  thoroughly  limit  the  amount 
of  nourishment  available  for  each  stalk,  a piece  of  ground  that  had 
been  in  corn  continuously  for  twenty  years,  and  was  badly  run 
down,  was  selected  for  the  experiment.  The  field  was  divided  into 


3^3 


i8  plots  of  four  rows  each.  The  four  rows  of  each  plot  were  planted 
with  I,  2,  3 and  4 stalks  per  hill,  respectively,  giving  18  rows  of 
each  thickness  of  planting  and  insuring  as  great  uniformity  of  con- 
ditions as  possible.  The  yields,  as  shown  in  the  table  below,  indi- 
cate that  the  amount  of  nourishment  available  for  each  stalk  was 
small,  even  in  tee  one-stalk  rows. 

The  percentage  of  barren  stalks  in  each  thickness  of  planting 
was  determined  shortly  before  cutting  the  corn  by  counting  the 
stalks  which  had  not  set  an  ear.  The  yields  of  ear  corn  and  fod- 
der were  also  determined,  with  the  proportion  of  each. 

The  experiment  was  repeated  in  1904,  using  the  same  plots  but 
reversing  the  order  of  planting;  that  is,  putting  the  4-stalk  rows 
where  the  i -stalk  rows  were  in  1903. 

The  table  below  shows  the  results  for  the  two  years. 


Stalks 

Yield  of  ear  corn  per  plat 
in  bushels  per  acre 

Per  cent,  of 
Good  ears 

Per  cent, 
of  ears 
to  fodder 

Per  cent  of 
barren 
stalks 

per 

1903 

1904 

1 

i 

* 

hill 

1903 

1904 

1993 

1904 

1903 

ino4 

1 

1 Good 
1 Corn 

Poor 

Corn 

Good 

Corn 

Poor 

Corn 

1 

! 14.77 

1 

1.14 

12.51 

1.0 

92.8 

92.0 

52.2 

49.5 

0.44 

6.5 

2 

21.23 

1.87 

16.16 

3.24 

91.9 

83.3 

48.3 

49  4 

1.41 

12.3 

3 

18.12 

3.69 

9.57 

6.41 

83.1 

60.8 

44.2 

36.0 

9.22 

34.5 

4 

16.76 

6 23 

9.30 

8.38 

72.9 

52.6 

41  5 

33.4 

9.89 

1 

40.74 

An  examination  of  the  above  table  will  show  that  the  percentage 
of  barren  stalks  was  very  materially  increased  as  the  proportion  of 
nourishment  available  for  each  stalk  was  lessened,  especially  in 
1904.  The  difference  between  the  two  years’  results  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  in  the  latter  year  the  soil  was  very  dry 
during  the  time  the  ears  were  forming,  so  that  the  amount  of  nour- 
ishment received  by  each  stalk  must  have  been  still  further  limited 
than  in.  1903,  when  there  was  a fair  amount  of  moisture. 

The  table  also  shows  that  the  proportions  of  good  to  poor  corn 
and  of  corn  to  fodder  were  materially  lessened  by  the  thicker  plant- 


314 


ing,  though  the  amount  of  fodder  increased  with  the  thickness  of 
planting. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  soil  upon  which 
these  experiments  were  conducted  was  very  poor  and  that  on  rich 
soil  the  differences  would  not  be  nearly  so  great.  We  should  re- 
member also,  in  summing  up  the  results,  that  the  total  yields  of 
corn  must  be  considered. 

Figures  12,  13  and  14  show  the  total  yields  and  proportions  of 
good  and  poor  corn  from  each  thickness  of  planting. 

Breeding  Corn  eor  Higher  Feeding  Value. 

In  the  spring  of  1903  experiments  in  the  improvement  of  the 
feeding  value  of  corn  were  begun  in  co-operation  with  six  growers 
in  different  sections  of  the  state,  using  five  varieties,  namely:  John- 
son County  White  Dent,  Pride  of  Indiana,  Orth’s  Hominy,  Early 
Yellow  Dent,  and  Silver  King.  Lots  of  ears  selected  for  their 
physical  appearance  were  in  each  case  sent  to  the  Station  for  analy- 
sis in  order  to  select  for  seed  the  ears  showing  the  highest  per  cent 
of  protein. 

The  selected  ears  were  in  each  case  planted  in  separate  rows, 
side  by  side.  In  about  half  of  the  cases  each  year  it  was  found 
necessary  to  put  the  breeding  plot  on  one  side  of  a large  corn  field 
of  the  same  variety,  as  suitable  isolated  places  could  not  be  secured. 
The  plots  were,  however,  always  placed  to  the  south  or  west  of  the 
main  field,  which  gave  them  some  protection,  since  the  prevailing 
winds  at  the  time  of  fertilization  usually  come  from  a southerly  or 
westerly  direction.  The  better  ears  were  usually  planted  towards 
the  middle  of  the  plot,  protecting  them  still  further  from  unde- 
sirable pollen. 

Shortly  before  tasseling  time  all  rows  were  carefully  examined 
and  the  better  ones,  judged  by  their  thriftiness  and  the  composition 
c f the  seed,  were  selected  for  detasseling.  The  detasseled  rows 
being  intended  to  furnish  the  seed  ears  for  the  next  year.  The  rows 
for  detasseling  were  usually  selected  so  as  to  alternate  with  tassel 
rows,  but  occassionally  it  was  found  desirable  to  detassel  two  rows 
side  by  side.  The  tassel  rows  furnished  plenty  of  pollen.  Besides 


315 


3i6 


the  rows  from  which  seed  was  to  be  selected,  all  weak  or  otherwise 
undesirable  stalks  were  also  detasseled,  so  that  their  pollen  would 
not  take  part  in  fertilizing  the  detasseled  rows. 

When  the  corn  was  ripe,  ears  for  the  next  year’s  planting  were 
selected  from  the  detasseled  rows  which  gave  the  largest  yields  of 
desirable  ears,  first  by  a mechanical  examination  of  the  kernels  for 
high  protein  and  fat  content,  as  described  in  part  III  of  this  bulletin, 
and  then  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  chemical  analyses  were  made  by  the  Chemical  Department 
of  the  Station,  to  which  credit  for  the  same  should  be  given. 

The  table  below  shows  the  average  composition  of  the  corn 
from  which  the  first  year’s  seed  was  selected,  the  average  compo- 
sition of  the  seed  ears  used  for  planting  each  year,  and  the  com- 
position of  the  best  single  ear,  in  each  case.  It  will  be  observed 
that  considerable  gains  in  the  protein  content  of  the  seed  were  made 
during  the  first  year  and  that  during  last  year  there  was  a falling 
off  in  the  average  composition  in  all  cases  except  one.  No  satis- 
factory explanation  of  this  can  be  found  at  present.  The  work 
will  need  to  be  continued  some  time  longer  before  conclusions  as 
to  its  practical  application  can  be  drawn. 


Table  Showing  Progress  of  Work  in  Breeding  Corn  for  Higher  Feeding  Value---1Q03-1Q0S. 


317 


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III.  CORN  BREEDING  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS. 

The  improvement  of  corn  by  breeding  along  definite  lines  is  no 
longer  a work  for  the  scientist  or  professional  seed-corn  grower 
cdone.  That  it  can  be  done  easily,  and  by  every  farmer  on  his  own 
farm,  has  been  proven  beyond  a doubt.  Simple  and  effective  meth- 
ods have  been  worked  out  and  thoroughly  tried.  These  any  farmer 
can  follow,  and,  by  the  use  of  a little  judgment  in  selecting  his  seed, 
he  can,  in  a short  time,  make  very  marked  progress  towards  pro- 
ducing what  he  w^ants.  The  greatest  success  will,  of  course,  come 
lo  those  who  have  a taste  for  the  work  and  who  are  prepared  to 
give  it  the  necessary  care  and  attention.  If  properly  attended  to, 
the  time  given  to  the  work  will  be  many  times  repaid  by  the  larger 
and  better  crops  produced.  Selecting  seed  from  the  products  of 
individual  ears  is  the  only  rapid  way  of  improving  corn  along  any 
line.  A study  of  the  yields  from  individual  ears  recorded  in  part  II 
of  this  bulletin  will  show  what  may  be  expected. 

Breeding  for  Large  Yields  and  Uniform  Quality. 

To  begin  with,  select  the  breed  of  corn  which  has  the  most  de- 
sirable characteristics  and  is  suited  to  the  locality.  If  a good  type 
is  not  at  hand,  it  will  be  wise  to  purchase  a few  bushels  of  good 
ears  rather  than  to  spend  valuable  time  in  breeding  up  a poor 
variety.  It  is  like  laying  a foundation  for  a good  herd  of  animals ; 
the  best  obtainable  should  be  secured  as  foundation  stock. 

Having  in  mind  a clear  idea  of  the  type  desired,  select  a num- 
ber of  good  ears  of  fair  size  and  as  uniform  as  possible.  A study 
of  the  illustrations  in  part  I of  this  bulletin  will  be  found  useful  in 
making  this  selection. 

All  the  ears  selected  should  be  as  nearly  alike  in  every  respect 
as  possible. 

The  larger  the  number  of  ears  used  in  this  work  of  breeding 
the  more  rapid  and  pronounced  will  be  the  progress. 

For  the  purpose  of  our  illustration  let  us  assume  that  twenty 
ears  are  selected.  After  a satisfactory  selection  has  been  made  each 
ear  should  be  tested  and  proven  perfect  in  germinating  power.  The 


319 


cars  should  then  be  carefully  tipped  and  butted,  discarding  all  irreg- 
ular, small  or  otherwise  imperfect  kernels.  They  may  then  be 
shelled  and  preserved  separately  until  planting  time,  or  they  may  be 
shelled  directly  into  the  planter  at  the  time  of  planting. 

For  the  breeding  plot,  select  a uniform  piece  of  ground  in  good 
average  condition.  This  may  be  located  in  a place  by  itself,  away 
from  all  other  corn  fields,  or  it  may  be  one  side  of  a regular  corn 
field.  If  the  latter  location  is  chosen,  it  should  be  on  the  windward 
side  of  the  field,  i.  e.,  on  the  side  from  which  the  prevailing  winds 
come  at  the  time  of  tasseling.  This  should  be  done  in  order  that  the 
rows  may  be  protected  as  much  as  possible  from  the  pollen  of  the 
corn  in  the  main  part  of  the  field.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  corn  is 
wind  pollinated  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  cross-fertilization  from  other 
corn  and  can  seldom  be  altogether  avoided.  Pollen  will  blow  half 
a mile  on  a windy  day.  In  locating  the  breeding  plot  the  position  of 
neighbor’s  corn  fields  must,  therefore,  also  be  considered.  The  dan- 
ger of  mixing  can  often  be  avoided  by  a week  or  ten  days  earlier 
cr  later  planting. 

The  corn  from  each  ear  must  be  planted  in  a separate  row, 
or  in  two  or  more  rows,  according  to  the  length.  Where  more  than 
one  row  per  ear  is  required,  the  rows  should  alternate  with  rows 
planted  from  another  ear.  Two  or  more  rows  for  each  ear  are 
usually  preferable,  because  fertilization  is  likely  to  be  more  perfect. 
A careful  record  of  the  number  of  the  row,  or  rows,  inwhich  each  ear 
is  planted  should  be  made.  For  greater  accuracy,  and  as  a guide  for 
future  selection,  it  is  wise  to  preserve  a brief  written  description  and 
pedigree  of  each  ear  used. 

As  soon  as  tassels  begin  to  appear  the  largest  number  of  de- 
sirable, but  alternate  rows  should  be  selected  for  detasseling.  If 
there  appears  to  be  much  difference  in  the  time  of  tasseling,  select  the 
earlier  rows  for  detasseling.  The  outside  row,  or  preferably  the 
two  outside  rows,  should  not  be  detasseled.  Assuming  that  the  odd 
numbered  rows  are  selected  for  detasseling,  begin  with  row  number 
^ and  carefully  pull  or  cut  out  the  tassels  as  rapidly  as  they  appear. 
Jn  no  case  should  any  of  these  be  allowed  to  ripen  pollen.  Aside 
from  these  selected  rows,  all  weak,  or  otherwise  inferior  stalks  in  the 
tassel  rows  should  also  be  detasseled,  so  that  they  may  not  take 


320 


part  in  fertilizing  the  selected  rows.  The  object  of  this  detasseling 
is  to  prevent  inbreeding.  Experiments  have  shown  that  inbreeding 
weakens  the  constitution  of  the  corn  and  lessens  future  yields.* 
When  the  corn  is  ripe,  husk  the  product  of  each  of  the  detasseled 
rows  separately.  In  case  there  was  more  than  one  of  these  planted 
from  a single  ear,  they  should  be  put  together.  You  can  now  com- 
pare the  products  of  the  various  ears  and  make  your  selection  of 
single  ears  for  the  next  year’s  planting.  In  determining  the  lots 
from  which  to  select,  the  two  important  factors  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration are  the  yield  and  the  proportion  of  ears  of  the  desired 
type.  Select  from  the  rows,  or  lots,  which  gave  the  largest  yields 
and  the  largest  proportion  of  ears  true  to  the  desired  type.  Both 
factors  must  be  considered.  Accurate  weights  of  the  yields  must 
be  made,  and  these  should  be  recorded  in  the  pedigrees  of  the  ears 
which  produced  them.  Selection  should  be  made  only  from  the  de- 
tasseled rows,  because  they  are  the  only  rows  of  which  you  are  sure 
that  they  have  not  been  inbred.  Select  from  at  least  two  lots  and 
use  the  ears  from  the  better  one  for  the  mother  plants,  or  the  de- 
tasseled rows,  next  year.  If  four  or  six  rows  are  good  enough  to 
select  from  they  should  be  used  in  order  to  prevent  possible  harm 
from  too  close  breeding.  After  you  have  made  your  selection  -for 
next  year’s  seed-plot,  the  remainder  of  the  good  ears  in  the  good 
lots  should  be  selected  as  seed  for  the  next  year’s  bulk  crop.  A con- 
tinuation of  this  method  of  breeding  and  selection  is  bound  to  result 
in  more  and  better  corn  from  year  to  year. 

The  beginner  in  corn  breeding  need  not  be  deterred  by  the 
labor  invalued.  It  will  be  found  to  be  the  best  paying  work  on  the 
farm.  Even  though  all  the  details  of  the  system  outlined  above 
cannot  be  carried  out,  every  farmer  who  produces  his  own  seed  corn 
should  use  this  individual  ear  and  row  method. 

Breeding  for  Higher  Feeding  Value. 

In  breeding  for  higher  feeding  value  the  same  general  methods 
as  in  breeding  for  yield  and  uniformity  are  followed,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  selecting  the  ears  that  are  rich  in  the  important  food  con- 
stituents, namely,  protein  and  oil. 

In  selecting  ears  for  this  purpose  due  attention  must  be  given, 


321 


Fig.  15. 


Showing  DhH'jcrivXCKs  in  Proi'ortions  01'  (ii;rm,  J Iard, 
Horny  Matticr  and  Wiiitic,  l^'i<orRv  Mat'i'icr  in  I\i:rni-:ds  i-rom 
] )ii-i-i:ricnt  Iv\rs  Corn. 


322 


first  of  all,  to  yielding  power  and  uniformity.  These  qualities  must 
never  be  lost  sight  of.  Otherwise,  while  improving  the  feeding  value 
per  pound  of  corn,  the  variety  may  be  injured  in  other  respects. 

The  feeding  value  of  a grain  of  corn  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  protein  (flesh  producing  material)  and  fat  it  contains.  The  germ 
is  rich  in  protein  and  contains  nearly  all  the  oil  in  the  kernel.  The 
hard,  horny  matter  contains  most  of  the  protein,  while  the  white, 
floury  portion  contains  relatively  little  of  either  protein  or  fat.  Bear- 
ing this  in  mind,  the  relative  feeding  value  of  two  ears  of  corn  can 
be  roughly  determined  by  an  examination  of  the  kernels.  The 
larger  the  germ  and  the  greater  the  proportion  of  hard,  horny  mat- 
ter to  white,  floury  matter  the  higher  the  feeding  value.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  ears  of  any  variety  vary  considerably  in  com- 
|X)sition  but  that  the  kernels  on  each  ear  are  of  approximately  the 
same  composition.  It  is  therefore  comparatively  easy  to  select  the 
eras  of  highest  feeding  value. 

Fig.  I5(p.  324)  shows,  in  the  upper  row,  kernels  from  ears  of 
high  feeding  value.  Observe  the  large  germs.  The  second  row  shows 
kernels  from  ears  of  the  same  varieties  which  are  low  in  feeding 
value.  The  longitudinal  and  cross  sections  of  kernels  show  very 
clearly  how  widely- the  proportions  of  germ,  hard  horny  and  white 
floury  portions  may  vary. 

The  larger  the  number  of  ears  from  which  selection  can  be 
made  the  better.  Select  for  their  general  qualities  several  times  the 
number  of  ears  you  intend  to  use  and  then  go  over  them  carefully 
for  their  feeding  value.  Examine  several  kernels  from  each  ear 
by  cutting  them  crosswise  through  the  middle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15. 
The  relative  proportions  of  germ,  horny  and  floury  portions  can 
thus  be  easily  seen.  By  selecting  the  richer  ears  for  seed,  year  after 
vear,  the  feeding  value  of  corn  can  be  considerably  increased. 


Purdue  University 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  No.  106,  Vol.  XII. 

MAY,  190S 


Commercial  Fertilizers 


liY  THE  STATION, 

JvA Fayette,  Ind., 

U.  S.  A. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


William  V.  Stuart,  President 

LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  County. 

Sylvester  Johnson  

Irvington,  Marion  County. 

David  E.  Beam 

Job  H.  VanXatta LaFayette,  Tippecanoe  County. 


James  M.  Barrett 

...Fort  Wayne,  Allen  County. 

Charles  Downing.- 

Greenfield,  Hancock  County. 

Christian  B.  Stemen 

Fort  Wavne,  Allen  County.- 

Charles  Major  

Addison  C.  Harris...- 

. . .Indianapolis,  Marion  County. 

STATION  STAFF. 


Winthrop  E.  Stone,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D 

President  of  the  University. 

* Arthur  Goss,  M.  S.,  A.  C 

William  C.  Latta.  M.  S 

Consulting  Agriculturist. 

James  Troop,  M.  S Horticulturist  and  Entomologist. 

Joseph  C.  Arthur,  D.  Sc Botanist. 

Arvill  W.  Bitting,  D.  V.  M.,  M.  D ..Veterinarian 

Hubert  E.  VanXorman,  B.  S Dairyman., 

John  H.  Skinner,  B.  S Live  Stock. 

Alfred  T.  Wiancko,  B.  S.  A Agriculturist. 

**William  J.  Jones,  Jr.,  M.  S.,  A.  C Associate  Chemist. 


M.  L.  Fisher,  B.  S 

***S.  D.  Conner.  B.  S 

Assistant  Chemist. 

*=^*0.  C.  Haworth,  B.  S 

Assistant  Chemist. 

C.  0.  Swanson,  M.  Agr 

Assistant  Chemist. 

Xellie  Tracy 

Clerk  and  Librarian. 

♦State  Chemist  in  charge  of  fertilizer  control. 

♦♦Chief  Deputy  State  Chemist. 

♦♦♦Deputy  State  Chemist. 

COMIVlERaAL  FERTILIZERS. 


ARTHUR  GOSS,  State  Chemist. 
W.  J.  JONES,  Jr.,  Chief  Deputy. 


Notice  to  Dealers  and  Consumers. 


Do  not  buy,  sell,  offer  for  sale  by  sample  or  otherwise,  or  have  in  your 
possession,  any  fertilizer  or  sample  of  same  unless  it  has  attached  to  it  the 
label  of  the  State  Chemist  showing  the  number  at  the  top  higher  than  INo.  2714. 

Potash  salts,  nitrate  of  soda,  tankage,  dried  blood  and  other  raw  ma- 
terial must  bear  a label  the  same  as  any  other  fertilizer. 

Many  persons  think  that  the  manufacturer  of  the  fertilizer  is  the  only  one  sub- 
ject to  penalties  for  violations  of  the  law.  This  is  not  the  case.  Penalties  may 
be  inflicted  on  any  one  who  has  any  fertilizer  in  his  possession  which  is  not  labeled 
as  required  by  law  or  which  is  not  up  to  the  standard  shown  on  the  label.  If  the 
dealer  or  purchaser  wishes  to  shift  the  responsibility  back  to  the  original  manu- 
facturer it  must  be  accomplished  by  a special  clause  in  a written  contract  and  may 
take  the  form  of  an  agreement  that  the  party  may  deduct  from  the  obligation  for 
the  payment  of  the  goods  all  costs  and  penalties  or  other  loss  incurred  because  of 
the  goods  not  complying  with  the  requirements  of  the  Indiana  Fertilizer  Law.  We 
are  informed  that  some  companies  whose  goods  have  always  made  an  excellent 
showing  on  inspection-have  voluntarily  made  such  contracts  with  their  agents. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  dealers  who  do  not  own  or  control  a factory,  register 
brands.  There  are  some  large  Arms  that  have  for  years  employed  factories  to 
make  their  goods  and  these  Arms  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  manufacturers 
and  sell  these  goods  over  a wide  range  of  territory.  There  are  other  cases  where 
a dealer  has  goods  registered  in  his  own  name  and  sells  only  a limited  amount 
For  the  flrst  season  the  purchaser  has  only  the  reputation  of  the  local  dealer  to 
recommend  such  goods,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  an  unscrupulous  manu- 
facturer does  not  fulfill  his  contract  with  the  dealer.  Until  these  purely  local  brands 
have  been  on  the  market  long  enough  to  admit  of  inspection  and  publication  of 
the  results  it  would  be  well  for  the  purchaser  to  find  out  who  made  the  goods 
and  then  look  up  the  inspections  of  other  goods  made  by  the  same  manufacturer. 
The  working  regulations  of  the  office  so  far  as  they  relate  to  manufacturers 
who  wish  to  register  goods  and  obtain  labels  will  be  furnished  on  application. 


By  direction  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University,  the  work  of  administer- 
ing the  fertilizer  law  including  the  inspection  and  analyses  of  fertilizers  and  publica- 
tion of  results,  was  included  in  the  functions  of  the  Experiment  Station  on  and  after 
July  1,  1904.  The  above  change  will  have  no  effect  on  the  administration  of  the 
business  so  far  as  the  fertilizer  trade  is  concerned,  and  all  rules  and  regulations 
heretofore  in  force  will  still  apply. 


4 


THE  INDIANA  FERTILIZER  LAW. 


The  full  text  of  the  law  in  regard  to  the  sale  of  fertilizers  in  Indiana  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Sectiou  1.  Certificate  to  be  Filed  with  State  Chemist. 

Before  any  commercial  fertilizer  is  sold  or  offered  for  sale  in  the  State  of 
Indiana,  the  manufacturer,  dealer,  importer,  agent,  or  party  who  causes  it  to  be 
sold  or  offered  for  sale,  by  sample  or  otherwise,  within  the  State  of  Indiana  shall 
file  with  the  State  Chemist  of  Indiana  a statement  that  he  desires  to  offer  for 
sale  in  Indiana  material  for  manorial  purposes,  and  also  a certificate,  for  registra- 
tion, stating  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the  location  of  the  principal  oflBce 
of  the  manufacturer,  the  name  under  which  the  fertilizer  will  be  sold,  the  name 
of  the  towns  in  Indiana  in  which  it  will  be  offered  for  sale,  and  the  minimum 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  of  potassium  oxide  (K2  O)  soluble  in  water,  of  phosphoric 
acid  (P2  05),  and  in  case  of  acidulated  goods  the  minimum  percentage  of  water 
soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  and  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  which  the 
manufacturer  or  party  offering  the  fertilizer  for  sale  guarantees  the  fertilizer  to 
contain. 

Section  2.  Registration  of  Certificate — Label. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  State  Chemist  to  register  the  certificate  provided 
for  in  section  one  (1)  of  this  act,  and  to  print  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  certif- 
icate in  the  form  of  a label.  Such  label  shall  be  plainly  printed  in  the  English 
language  and  shall  set  forth  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the  location  of  the 
principal  office  of  the  manufacturer,  the  name  of  the  fertilizer,  and  the  mini- 
mum percentage  of  nitrogen,  of  potassium  oxide  (K2  0)  soluble  in  water,  of  phosphoric 
acid  (P2  05)  or  in  case  of  acidulated  goods,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric 
acid,  and  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  which  the  manufacturer  guarantees  the 
fertilizer  to  contain.  The  State  Chemist  shall  furnish  such  labels  to  manufac- 
turers, or  agents,  desiring* to  sell,  or  to  offer  or  expose  to  sale,  the  fertilizers  so 
registered  and  in  such  numbers  as  such  manufacturers  or  agents  may  desire: 
Provided,  That  the  State  Chemist  shall  not  be  required  to*  furnish  a less  number 
than  five  hundred  for  any  one  fertilizer  and  shall  only  be  required  to  furnish 
them  in  multiples  of  five  hundred,  and  all 'labels  shall  be  good  until  used. 

Section  3.  Labels  to  be  Affixed  to  Samples,  Packages  and  Delivered  with 

Goods  Sold  in  Riilk. 

Any  person,  company,  corporation  or  agent  that  shall  manufacture,  offer  for 
sale,  sell  or  expose  for  sale  by  sample  or  otherwise,  or  have  in  his-  possession 
for  his  own  use  or  for  the  use  of  another,  any  commercial  fertilizer,  shall  affix  or 
cause  to  be  affixed  to  every  package  or  sample  of  such  fertilizer.  In  a conspicuous 
place  on  the  outside  thereof,  the  label  of  the  State  Chemist  provided  for  in  section 
two  (2)  of  this  act.  When  fertilizers  are  sold  in  bulk  a label  shall  be  delivered 
to  the  purchaser  with  each  two  hundred  pounds  or  fraction  thereof. 

Section  4.  Penalties. 

Any  person,  company,  corporation  or  agent,  that  shall  offer  for  sale,  sell  or 
expose  for  sale,  by  sample  ‘or  otherwise,  or  have  in  his  possession  for  his  own  use 
or  for  the  use  of  another,  any  package  or  sample  or  any  quantity  of  any  com- 
mercial fertilizer  which  does  not  have  affixed  to  it  the  label  of  the  State  Chemist, 
or  which  shall  be  found  by  an  analysis  made  by  or  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Chemist,  to  contain  a smaller  percentage  of  any  one  of  the  Ingredients 
mentioned  in  section  two  of  this  act,  than  the  label  of  the  State  Chemist  shows 


5 


It  is  guaranteed  to  contain,  or  which  shall  be  labeled  with  a false  or  inaccurate 
guarantee,  or  any  person,  company,  corporation  or  agent,  that  shall  use  the  name 
or  title  of  the  State  Chemist  on  a label  not  furnished  by  the  State  Chemist,  shall 
be  deemed  guilty  of  a misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  fined  in 
the  sum  of  $50  for  the  first  offense  and  in  the  sum  of  $100  for  each  subsequent 
offense.  In  all  litigation  arising  from  the  purchase  or  sale  of  any  commercial 
fertilizer  in  which  the  composition  of  the  same  may  be  involved,  a certified  copy 
of  the  ofldcial  analysis  signed  by  the  State  Chemist  shall  be  accepted  as  con- 
clusive proof  of  the  composition  of  such  fertilizer:  Provided,  That  nothing  in 

this  act  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prevent  a farmer  mixing  fertilizer  materials 
sold  under  provisions  of  this  act,  for  his  own  use,  or  to  prevent  manufacturers, 
who  have  complied  with  the  provisions  of  section  one,  two  and  three  of  this  act, 
having  in  stock  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  or  to  prevent 
the  State  Chemist,  or  the  United  States  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  In- 
diana, or  any  person  or  persons  deputized  by  said  State  Chemist,  making  experi- 
ments with  agricultural  chemicals  for  the  advancement  of  the  science  of  agricul- 
ture. 

Section  5.  State  Chemist — Fees — Inspection. 

The  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  at  Purdue  University  is  hereby  con- 
stituted the  State  Chemist  of  Indiana,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to  comply  with 
the  provisions  of  this  act  so  far  as  they  relate  to  him,  and  for  his  expenses  and 
compensation  in  inspecting  and  analyzing  fertilizers,  he  shall  receive  for  analyzing 
a sample  of  fertilizer  and  making  his  certificate  of  the  same,  $2,  for  labels 
furnished,  one  dollar  per  hundred.  The  State  Chemist  or  any  person  by  him  dep- 
utized is  hereby  empowered  to  procure  from  any  package  of  commercial  fertilizer 
offered  for  sale  or  found  in  Indiana  a quantity  of  fertilizer  not  exceeding  two 
pounds:  Provided,  Such  sample  shall  be  drawn  during  reasonable  business  hours, 

or  in  the  presence  of  the  owner  of  the  fertilizer,  or  of  some  party  claiming  to  be 
the  representative  of  the  owners. 

Any  person  who  shall  prevent  or  strive  to  prevent  the  State  Chemist,  or  any 
person  deputized  by  the  State  Chemist,  from  inspecting  and  obtaining  samples  of 
fertilizers,  as  provided  for  in  this  act  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  misdemeanor,  and 
upon  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  for  the  first  of- 
fense, and  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  each  subsequent  offense.  The  State 
Chemist  is  hereby  empowered  to  prescribe  and  enforce  such  rules  and  regulations 
relating  to  fertilizers  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  full  intent 
and  meaning  of  this  act. 

Section  (>.  Tlie  Term  ‘‘Commereisil  Fertilizer”  Defined. 

The  term  “commercial  fertilizer”  as  used  in  this  Act  shall  be  taken  to  mean 
any  and  every  substance  imported,  manufactured,  prepared,  or  sold  for  fertilizing 
or  manorial  purposes,  except  barn-yard  manure,  marl,  lime,  wood-ashes  and  plaster. 


6 


Fertilizer  Map— See  Next  Page. 


FERTILIZER  MAP. 


The  map  reproduced  on  the  preceding  page  was  prepared  in  order  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  amount  of  fertilizer  sold  in  different  sections  of  the  State.  The  estimated 
annual  sales  in  all  the  important  distributing  points  will  be  found  in  the  tabulated 
statement  following.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Indiana  Ferilizer  law  does  not  re- 
quire dealers  to  report  sales,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  reliable  data  in  regard  to  the 
amounts  sold.  The  estimates  given  are  based  on  information  obtained  by  our  depu- 
ties on  their  inspection  trips. 

The  towns  are  numbered  on  the  map  in  each  county  to  correspond  with  the  num- 
bers in  the  second  cplumn  of  the  table  following. 

It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  map  that  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the 
fertilizer  sold  is  used  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  This  is  largely  because 
the  clay  soils  of  that  section  are  as  a rule  more  deficient  in  plant  food  than  the  black 
soils  of  the  northern  portion.  It  has  been  observed  in  the  State  Chemist’s  office-,  how- 
ever, that  the  trade  is  gradually  extending  northward  and  it  will  undoubtedly  only 
be  a question  of  a comparatively  short  time  until  large  quantities  of  fertilizer  are 
used  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  state. 


LIST  OF  TOWNS. 


County 

No.  Town  OD  Map 

N ame  of 
Town 

Estimated  SalesI 
por  Year  in  Tons 

County 

s- 

a 

1 

d 

oz; 

N ame  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

County 

No.  Town  on  Map 

N ame  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales  1 
per  Year  in  Tonsil 

Adams 

1 

[Decatur  

Clark 

14 

St.  Joseph  Hill 

30 

Dearborn . . . . 

8 

Moores  Hill . . . 

100 

2 

'Berne 

....  1 

15 

Watson 

25 

9 

New  Alsace... 

30 

1 

16 

Bethlenem  .... 

10 

Spa  rta  . . 

40 

Allen 

1 

Fort  \V  ayne  . . . 

38  i 

17 

Underwood  . .. 

40 

11 

St.  Leon 

50 

12 

Weisburg  — 3 

50 

Barthf  lomew 

1 

Columbus  ....1 

100  ; 

Clay 

1 

Brazil 

13 

Yorkville 

25 

2 

Elizaliethtown 

150  ' 

2 

Clay  City 

20 

14 

Cold  springs 

3 

Cra  m ma  r 

50  1 

1 3 

J ackson 

4 

Hope 

100 

1 4 

Saline  City .... 

Decatur 

1 

G-reensburg’  ..9 

400 

5 

.1  onRsville  .... 

50 

5 

A sherville 

2 

TTnrnf'#* 

40 

6 

Rugby 

50 

3 

Kingstown 

25 

Clinton  ...... 

1 

Forest a 

4 

r.etts 

50 

Benton 

2 Frankfort 

5 

Millhausen.  . .. 

200 

' 3jMichigantown 

6 

New  Point  — 3 

75 

Blackford 

1 Hartford  City. 

1 1 

1 4 Middle  Fork  .. 

7 

Sandusky 

75 

1 

1 

I 

8 

St.  Paul 2 

150 

Boone 

ll 

1 r>ebanon  .... 

20 

Crawford 

1 Alton 3 

50 

9 

Sardinia  . 

50 

1 

1 ' 

I - ' 

2 Beech  wood 

25 

10 

Westport 

70 

Brown | 

1 Bean  Blossom  . 

75 

3 Eckerty 4 

103 

11 

Williamstown  . 

75 

1 

2 Nashville j 

50 

4|  English 2 

75 

12 

A d a m .<5 

50 

I 

3 New  Bellsville.  i 

50 

5 Fredonia  

25 

4 

Dockman j 

50 

6'  Leavenworth  3 

50 

Dekalb 

1 

Auburn 

100 

7 Marengo 2 

75 

2 

Butler 

50 

Carroll 1 

1 

2 

1 

8 Milltown  2 

75 

3 

Delphi  j 

1 

0,  Pilot  Knob 

50 

4 

St.  Joe  Station 

50 

Cass ' 

1 

Logan  sport . 

25 

10  Piddle 

40 

5 

n t#»rlrkffc 

11 

Taswell 

50 

Clark ‘ 

1 Blue  Lick 1 

12  Wvandr»f-t-e 

25 

Delaware 

1 

A nthnny 

2 Tiorrien 2 

100 

1 

2 

M uncie 

25 

3: 

Charlestown . . 2 

100 

! Davies 

1 Ehiora 

25 

4 

Dallas 

2 Mnntrremerv  .. 

40 

1 

Bird’s  Eye  .... 

75 

5 

Henry  ville  . . .3 

75 

i 

3, 

Washington.  .5 

20 ' 

j Diil>ois 

2 

Duff 

40 

6 

Jeffersonville  . 

50 

1 

3 

Ferdinand  

200 

7 

Marysville 

.5f) 

Dearborn  ... 

i! 

A urora 6 

10 

1 

4 

Holland 

100 

i 

H 

Memphis 

50 

2 Dillsboro 7' 

2 P 

5 

Huntingb’rg  10 

100 

1 

<) 

Nabb 

75 

3 tiu ilford 3| 

50 

6 1 rela  nd 

50 

10 

New  Wash’ton 

50 

4 Kelso 1 

50 

7 T :i  7 

200 

i 

11 

Otisco 

75  ! 

1 

5 r^awrenceb’rg  8| 

X ICyiinn 

75 

i 

12 

Sellersburg 

50 

1 

6 fyogan 1 

’ 'so 

9 Mentor 10 

50 

1 

13: 

Speeds 

25  ‘ 

7 Manchester  . . . 1 

100 

10  Schnellville  . .. 

100 

8 


LIST  OF  TOWNS— Continued. 


County 


Name  of 
Town 


Dubois 


Elkhart 


Fayette 


Floyd 


. jll  St.  Henry 

12  St.  Anthony  11 

13  Dubois 

14  Johnsburg  ..  11 


1 Elkhart 

2 Goshen 

3 Millersburg  . . . 

4 Nappanee 


, I 1 Alpine 

1 .2  Benton ville 

; 3 Columbia 

4 ConnersviUe..4 

I 5 Ever  ton 

6lNulltown 


Fountain  . . 


Franklin  .. 


ijFloyd  Knobs  . . 

2 Galena 

3 Georgetown  . . . 

4 Greenville 

5|New  Albany  12 


I 1 Attica  — 
I 2 Irvington 


3 Vecdersburg  .. 

j li  Anderson  ville  . 100 

! 2 Bath 100 

[ 3 BrookviUe  . ..13  200 
I 4 Cedar  Grove.  21  50 

I 5 1 Fairfield 75 

; 6 Laurel  £0 

I 7 Metamora 40 

8 Mt.  Carmel.  ..|  100 
I 9 New  Trentonl4'  50 
10  BloomingGrove  75 

'll  Oakforest 100 

|12  Oldensburg  . ..  100 
1 13  South  Gate . . . 100 

14  Wynn 75 


Fulton 

Gibson 


1 Kewanna  . 

2 Rochester 


Grant . 
Greene. 


j 1 Fort  Branch 
I 2 Francisco  . . . 

I SHaubstadt.. 

1 ^ Macke5' 

I 5' Oakland  City 
6 Owens  ville. . . 

! 7 Patoka 

i 8 Princeton  . .. 


l!Gas  City  . . 
2,  Marion 


Hamilton. 
Hancock  . 

Harrison  . 


1 1 Bloomfield  . . . 
2!  Newberry  . . . 
3|Owensburg . . 
4j  Worthington 

I 

liNoblesville  .. 
2 Westfield  . . . . 


60 

10 

40 

40 

100 

25 

50 

20 

40 

40 


1 1 Charlott  es  ville 

2 Greenfield 

3|New  Palestine 

l|Corydon ....  15 

2 Cory  don  Jet.  16 

3 Crandall 


o 

50 

50 

40 

40 

20 

120 

40 

40 

50 

200 

200 

100 

100 

100 

200 

100 

400 

10 

10 


County 


Harrison 


Hendricks , 


Henry 


Howard 


Huntington 


J ackson 


: Jasper. 


Jay 


Jefferson 


£0| 

10  I 

25  ! 

1000 

200 

100 


Name  of 
Town 


County 


^ S 

pt. 


Name  of 
Town 


1^1 


u o 
F4  <3. 


4 

Depauw 

PO  ' 

Jefferson 

is'wirt 2 

ICO 

3 

Elizabeth 

200 

19  Big  Creek 

40 

6 

Evans  Landi’g 

100 

1 

Laconia 17 

200 

Jennings 

1 Bigger . . . 

50 

8 

Lanesville 

200 

2 Brewers  ville  . . . 

50 

9 

Locust  Point  .. 

50 

3 Butlerville 

100 

10 

Mauckport . . .2 

100 

4 Commiskey  . . . 

100 

11 

New  Ams’dam 

100 

5 Graylord 14 

! 50 

12 

Ramsev 

100 

6 Havden 

1 100 

13 

Rosewood 

100 

7 Lovett 

lOO 

14 

Central  

100 

8 Nebraska 

100 

9 No.  Vernon. .13 

200 

1 

Clayton 

10  Paris  Crossing 

200 

2 

Coatsville 

11  San  J acinto  . . . 

50 

3 

Dai  ville 

25 

12  Scipio 

25 

4 

Plainfield 

1 

5 

Belleville 

Johnson  

1 Edinburg 

50 

1 

2 Franklin 10 

100 

1 

.Dunreith 

50 

3 Trafalgar 

200 

2 

Knightstown  . . 

100 

4 White) and 

50 

3 

Lewisville 

50 

5 Greenwood 

iO 

4 

Mi  1 ville 

25 

6 Samaria  

75 

5 

Moreland 

6 

New  Castle  . .. 

Knox 

1 Oaktown  

25 

7 

New  Lisbon  . . . 

’ 50 

2 Vincennes 

100 

8 

Springport  .... 

3 Wheatland  . . . 

9 

Spireland  . 

i 

4 Decker 

10 

Messick 

1 

1 

Kosciusko . . . 

l!  Milford 

40 

1 

Kokomo 

2 W arsaw  . ... 

2 

Russiaville  ..a 

! 

1 

Lagrange  . .. 

1 Lagrange 

1 

Huntington  . . . 

25 

2 

Warren 

' Lake. 

1 Crown  Point  .. 

1 25 

2 TTammonri 

1 

1 

Brownstown . . . 

100 

3 Highlands 

50 

2 

Cortland  ..  . 

100  1 

4 Hobart . 

20 

3 

Crothersville  . 

100  1 

5 Lowell 

4 

Ewing 3 

50  1 

6 Shelby  

5 

Ft  6Ctown ....  10 

100 

I 

1 7 Rns.<;  

6 

Kurtz  ........ 

100 

8 Saxon 

Seymour 

De  Motte 

Fair  Oaks 

McCoysburg  . . 
Pleasant  Grove 
PleasantRidge 
Remington  .... 

Rensselaer 

Wheatfield 

Portland 

Red  Key 


Belleview 

Brooksburg  . . . 
Bryantsburg .. 

Canaan  

Chelsea 

Deputy 


25  i 
25  I 
35 
25 
50  ' 
40 
80  1 
25  I 


Laporte 


Lawrence. 


100 

23 

50 

100 

50 

150 


1 Hanna  .... 

2 Kingsbury. 

3 Laporte I 25 

4 Michigan  City  1 

5 So.  Wanatah..  I — 

6 Wanatah 20 

1 Bedford 10  100 

2 Bryantsville  .. 

3 Georgia 

4 Helton  ville  — 

5 Huron .... 

6 Mitchell I 100 

7 Zelma 50 


200 


Madison. 


Dupont 2 ItO 


Hanover 

Hicks 

Kent 

ll|Madison  ..  . 1‘ 

12  Manville 

13  McGregor 

No  Madison  .. 

Saluda 

Stony  Point  . .. 
iSwan  ville 


100  I 


100 

200 

30 

fO 

200 

40 


Marion 


Marshall 


1 Alexandria  . 

2 Anderson  . . . 

3 Elwo  -d 

4 Ingalls 

5 Summitville. 


1 Acton I 50 

2 Brightwood  . ..  j 

3 Indianapolis  ..  200 

4 Augusta i 25 

1 Plymouth | 


Martin 


1 Cale..  . 

2 Indian  Springs 


i f 


50 


9 


LIST  OF  TOWNS— Continued. 


County 

No.  TownonMap 

N ame  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

County 

No.  Town  on  Map:  i 

N ame  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

County 

No.  Town  on  Map! 

Name  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

100 

100 

Rush 

5 

May.s ...  . 

25 

4 Shoals 

1 50 

1 

6 

Milroy 17 

200 

1 

Pike 

7 

M o.sr.ow  . 

25 

1 Bunkerhill 

40 

8 

Rushville  4 

300 

^'Pern  

1 10 

Of  well 

25 

9 

Sexton  . . 

25 

I 

50 

10 

Arlington 

500 

100 

St.  Joseph . .. 

1 

Mishawaka 

200 

100 

2 

South  Bend  . . . 

50 

4iHarrodsburg.. 

100 

8j  Algiers 

Scott  

1 

A iistin 

25 

Montgomery 

I'Crawfordsville 

2 

Blocher 

100 

....  1 

3 

Hardy 

.... 

50 

4 

Lexington  .... 

! 200 

Morgan 

1,  Brooklyn 

20 

31  Valparaiso.. .. 

100 

5 

Scottsburg  ..17 

100 

2 Mahalasville .. 

4 1 Wheeler 

6 

Vienna 

100 

3 Martinsville  .. 

lob 

5 

Kouts 

"25 

4!Mooresville 

40 

1 

Shelby 

1 

Fairland 

50 

100 

1 

2 

Morristown . . . 

25 

2 

50 

3 

Shelby  ville  .... 

50 

.. 

3 

Cynthiana  — 

10  1 

4 

Waldron 

25 

Newton 

I'Goodland 

40 

4 

New  Harmony 

50 

5 

Spencer 

1 

Buff  aloville . 

100 

25 

6 

100 

2 

Chrisnev 

200 

4 Rose  Lawn 

50 

7 

St.  Wendels  . . . 

75 

3 

Dale 

2170 

n 

Wadesville 

10  ' 

4 

Evanston 2 

100 

Noble 

li  Albion 

20 

5 

Gentry  ville .... 

40 

Pulaski 

1 

250 

6 

Huff 

£0 

3IBrimfield 

2 

Medary  ville . . . 

50 

7 

La  mar  

100 

4 Kendalville  . . . 

160 

3 

Winamac 

100 

8 

Lincoln  City  . 3 

50 

1 5|Ligonier 

9 Ma d rid 

1 6,  Ripley 

Putnam 

1 

Cloverdale 

40 

10 

Mariah  Hill.  .. 

50 

2 

Green  castle  . . . 

25 

11 

Pigeon 

25 

Ohio 

1 

Ba  scorn 

1 50 

3 

Roarhdalft  .... 

12 

Rr.ckhill . . 

50 

2 

Bear  Branch  . . 

100 

4 

Putnamville  .. 

13 

Rockport 

50 

3 

Rising  Sun..  18 

14 

Santa  Claus.. . 

100 

Randolph  . .. 

1 

Losantville .... 

15 

Schley 

25 

Orange | 

1 

A hvdel . 

1 25 

2 

T.ynn 

16 

St.  T^eins^rd  • 

100 

1 

2 

French  Lick.  14 

i 50 

3 

kidgevillft 

17 

1 

3 

Glass  Rock 

25 

4 

Union  City 

25 



4 

r.eipsiic  .... 

200 

5 

Winrhe,«;ter .... 

Starke  

1 ' H a m1(»t  . 

20 

5 

Orleans 10 

100 

6 

Farmland 

2 Knox 

6 

Paoli 17 

100 

3 

North  Judson  . 

1 

West  Baden  . . . 

50 

1 Ripley 

1 

Batesville  ...  16, 

200 

1 

4 

San  Pierre  .... 

*'25 

8 

Lost  River  .... 

200 

1 

2iBenham 

100 

1 

3 1 Correct  ...  .... 

100 

Steuben  

1 

A ngnia 

Owen 1 

1 Amey 

.... 

1 

4 Cross  Plains. .. 

100 

2|CoalCity.  ... 

1 

1 . . . . 

1 

SiDabnev 

50 

Sullivan  .... 

3 1 Freedom 

1 25 

1 

6 

Delaware 

50 

4 

Gosport 1 

100 

7 

Friendship  — 

£0 

Switzerland  . 

1 

Bennington  . . . 

50 

5 

Patricksburg  .i 

100 

8 

Hayneys  Cor . . 

50 

2 

Florence 

50 

6 

Romona 

9 

Hoi  ten 2 

100 

3 

Mo(  resfield .... 

100 

7 

Spencer 2 

ibo 

10 

Marble  Corner 

25 

4 

Mt.  Stening  . . 

50 

11 

Milan 2 

100 

5 

Patriot 

Parke ' 

1 

Hollandsburg  . i 

12 

Morris 1 

100 

6 

Quercus  Grove. 

25 

2 

Rockville 

....  1 

13 

New  Marion...! 

100 

7 

Sugar  Branch . 

100 

1 

14 

Osg<x)d 16 1 

200 

1 

8 

Vevay 16 

100 

Perry 

1 

Adyeville 

.<^0  ' 

15 

Pierceville j 

100 

9 

Center  Square. 

100 

2 

Apalnna  

1(0  1 

16 

Rexvillft 

50 

10 

E.  Enterprise.. 

100 

3 

Branch  ville  . . . 

50  I 

17 

Spades 1 

50 

i 

11 

Jay 

50 

4 

Cannelton  . ..17 

50 

18 

St.  Magdalene 

50 

1 

12 

Pleasant 

50 

5 

Derby 

25  ! 

19 

Sunman 10 

1=^0 

6 

German 

1 

1 

20 

Versailles 

200 

Tippecanoe. . 

1 

LaFayette  — 

SO 

7 

Leopold 

200 

I 

1 

21 

Gaff 

50 

1 

8 

Magnet 16 

50  ' 

1 

22 

Lookout  

Tipton 1 

1 

Sharpsville. . . . 

9 

Mt.  Pleasant  . 

UK)  : 

23 

Napoleon 

200 

2 

Tipton 

10 

Oriole 

100 

1 

24 

'^rit nsville  . 

50 

11 

Rome 1 

10 

1 

TTnion 

1 

Billingsville  . . . 

100 

12 

Tell  City....  16 

100 

, Rush 

1 

Carthage 

50 

2 

Cottage  Grove. 

50 

13 

Troy 16 

100 

2 

F almouth  .... 

25 

3 

Kitchels 

200 

14 

Prospero 

100 

3 

Glenwcxid 

100 

4 

Liberty 16 

200 

- 1 

15 

.St.  Croix 

IfX)  1 

4 Manilla 

50 

5 

Brownsville  . . . 

40 

10 


LIST  OF  TOWNS— Continued. 


County 

cj 

a 

o 

H 

o 

Name  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
iper  Year  in  Tons 

County 

No. Townee  Map] 

Name  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

County 

rS 

PI 

a 

o 

Js; 

Name  of 
Town 

Estimated  Sales 
per  Year  in  Tons 

6 

40 

7 

Tenny  son 

50 

Wayne 

6 

Elconomy 

7 

College  Corner 

7 

Fountain  City . 

Washington.. 

1 

Campbellsb’rg 

200 

8 

Greenfork  .... 

25 

V anderburg . 

1 

Evansville  ...9 

500 

2 

Clavsville 

50 

9 

Hagerstown  . .2 

ICO 

2 

Englefiftlri 

100 

3 

Fredricksburg 

50 

10 

Milton 

50 

3 

St.arftr 

SO 

4 

Harrisontown  . 

50 

11 

Richmond 

200 

5 

Hitcbc<^ck 

50 

12 

Williamsburg  . 

Vermillion. . . 

1 

Npwpnrf  

6 

L/ittle  York . . . . 

50 

13 

A bington 

7 

Martinsbui  g . 

100 

14 

Whitewater . . . 

Vigo 

1 

Youngstown. . . 

8 

q 

New  Ph’delp’a. 

SO 

inn 

15 

Bethel 

60 

Wabash  .... 

1 

N.  Manchester 

20 

10 

Salem 15 

iUU 
; 800 

Wells  

1 

Bluff  ton 

2 

Wabash 

40 

11 

Saltillo 

100 

12 

South  Boston.. 

50 

White 

1 

Brookston 

20 

W arren 

13 

Wiertown 

50 

2 

Bumett.s  Creek 

14 

Beck  Mills 

100 

3 

Lee 

Warrick 

1 

Boonville  ....  13 

400 

4 

M onon  . 

75 

2 

Chandler 

100 

Wayne 

1 

Bos  ton  

50 

5 

Monticello 

50 

3 

Degonia  Spr’gs 

100  i 

2 

Cambridge  C’y 

■ 25 

6 

Reynolds 

60 

4 

Elberfeld 

200  1 

3 

Centerville  ..14 

50 

7 

Wolent.t. 

80 

5 

Folsom  ville .... 

50 

4 

Dublin 

25 

6 

Selvin  

50 

5 

E.  Germanto’n 

25 

Whitely 

1 

Columbia  City 

a 40  tons  in  1900.  No.  sales  reported  in  recent  years. 

1 Distributing  point  estimated  900  tons  received  per  year. 

2 Distributing  point  estimated  200  tons  received  per  year. 

3 Distributing  point  estimated  150  tons  received  per  year. 

4 Distributing  point  estimated  600  tons  received  per  year. 

5 Distributing  point  estimated  40  tons  received  per  year. 

6 Distributing  point  estimated  75  tons  received  per  year. 

7 Distributing  point  estimated  700  tons  received  per  year. 

8 Distributing  point  estimated  25  tons  received  per  year. 

9 Distributing  point  estimated  1000  tons  received  per  year. 

10  Distributing  point  estimated  300  tons  received  per  year. 

11  Distributing  point  estimated  250  tons  received  per  year. 

12  Distributing  point  estimated  1200  tons  received  per  year. 

13  Distributing  point  estimated  800  tons  received  per  j^ear. 

14  Distributing  point  estimated  100  tons  received  per  year. 

15  Distributing  point  estimated  2000  tons  received  per  year. 

16  Distributing  point  estimated  500  tons  received  per  year. 

17  Distributing  point  estimated  400  tons  received  per  year. 

18  Distributing  point  estimated  50  tons  received  per  year. 


RAW  MATERIALS  FOR  HOME  MIXING. 

In  some  sections  of  the  State  farmers  wish  to  make  mixtures  that  are  not  on 
sale  in  their  locality  or  to  do  home  mixing  to  duplicate  brands  that  are  on  sale. 
Farmers  report  a considerable  saving  and  satisfactory  results  from  this  work. 
Home  mixing  is  generally  on  a cash  basis,  while  most  of  the  mixed  goods  are  sold 
on  long  time.  If  the  whole  business  was  on  a cash  basis  it  would  result  in  a 
great  saving  to  the  consumer. 

Those  who  wish  to  try  home  mixing  should  remember  that  the  raw  materials 
for  home  mixing  require  to  he  registered  and  guaranteed  just  as  any  other  fertilizer. 
Formerly  it  was  difficult  to  obtain  raw  materials,  but  now  some  of  the  largest 
firms  have  registered  raw  materials  and  made  them  available  to  farmers. 

Farmers  and  dealers  handling  raw  material  should  remember  that  home-mixing 
should  really  he  done  at  home  and  from  registered  and  labeled  goods.  A dealer  who 
mixes  registered  raw  materials  and  delivers  the  mixture  to  his  customer  thereby 
makes  a new  brand  and  unless  it  is  registered  and  labeled,  both  dealer  and  buyer 
may  be  subjected  to  penalties.  On  the  other  hand  the  law  expressly  provides 
that  a farmer  may  take  home  and  mix  any  registered  raw  materials  in  any  way 


11 


he  may  choose.  This  distinction  may  seem  at  first  rather  unnecessary,  but  it  is  a 
proper  one  to  make.  Some  of  the  worst  swindling  we  have  ever  found  in  the 
fertilizer  business  was  in  connection  with  dealers  who  pretended  to  mix  goods 
to  order. 

It  is  well  known  that  most  manufacturers  do  not  wish  to  sell  raw  material 
and  hence  the  registration  of  raw  materials  by  a considerable  number  of  firms 
must  be  considered  as  something  of  a concession  to  the  growing  demand.  It  is 
only  fair  that  those  in  need  of  raw  material  should  show  some  appreciation  of 
this  and  purchase  only  registered  raw  material. 

In  planning  the  purchase  of  raw  materials  farmers  should  keep  in  mind  that 
while  potash  salts  and  nitrate  of  soda  are  very  constant  in  composition,  tankage 
is  a term  that  is  applied  to  products  of  very  varying  composition.  Therefore 
the  guarantee  on  the  tankage  should  be  carefully  examined,  for  some  kinds  of 
tankage  contain  three  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  other  kinds.  As  a rule  the 
higher  the  nitrogen  the  lower  the  phosphoric  acid  in  tankage.  The  phosphoric 
acid  in  tankage  has  practically  the  same  value  as  that  in  bone. 

The  following  firms  have  registered  raw  materials,  furnishing  potash  and 
nitrogen.  Nearly  every  house  sells  ground  bone  and  acid  phosphate,  so  that  these 
materials  are  not  included  in  the  special  list  given  below.  The  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent firms  selling  this  class  of  material  can  be  determined  by  referring  to  Table 
3 in  the  back  part  of  this  bulletin.  Acid  phosphate  is  often  sold  under  a special 
brand  name,  but  it  can  be  readily  recognized  by  its  guarantee,  which  should  be 
not  less  than  12  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid.  Most  of  the  acid 
phosphate  contains  more  than  this  and  a 14  per  cent,  guarantee  is  very  common 
and  the  inspections  show  that  it  is  well  maintained. 

Muriate  of  Potash. 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The,  Chicago,  111. 

Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Farmers  Fertilizer  Co.  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Fox  Chemical  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Hopkins  Fertilizer  Co.,  New  Albany,  Ind. 

Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co.,  The  L.  W.,  France^ville,  Ind. 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

North  Western  Fertilizing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Read  Phosphate  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Smith  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Southern  Indiana  Fertilizer  Co.,  Boonville,  Ind. 

Swift  & Company,  Chicago,  111. 

Weidman,  Augustus,  Hagerstown,  Ind. 

Sulfate  of  Potash. 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The,  Chicago,  111. 

Darling  & Company,  Chicago,  111. 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Rajuh  & Sons’  Fertilizer  Co.,  E,,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Kainit. 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The,  Chicago.  111. 

Bash  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co.,  The  L.  W.,  Francesvllle,  Ind. 

Tuscarora  Fertilizer  Co.,  Chicago,  Ills. 


12 


20%  Manure  Salt. 

Read  Phosphate  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The,  Chicago,  111. 

Bash  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Rauh  & Sons  Fertilizer  Co.,  E.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Read  Phosphate  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Smith  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  The,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
Weidman,  Augustus,  Hagerstown,  Ind. 

Tankage. 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Morris  & Co.,  Nelson,  Chicago,  111. 

Smith  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  The,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


Report  of  Inspections  Made  During  I904. 

During  the  past  year  643  samples  of  fertilizer  were  collected  by  the  regular 
deputies  of  the  State  Chemist  and  analyses  of  these  samples  are  reported  in  detail 
in  table  2. 

The  purpose  of  this  table  is  to  show  just  what  the  composition  of  the  goods 
found  at  different  points  was.  The  label  or  tag  shows  what  the  purchaser  is  en- 
titled to  receive,  and  the  analysis  shows  what  was  in  the  packages  to  which  the 
labels  or  tags  were  attached.  The  section  of  the  fertilizer  law  requiring  every  sam- 
ple bottle  of  fertilizer  to  bear  the  same  label  that  will  appear  on  the  goods  when  de- 
livered to  the  purchasers  is  something  of  an  innovation  in  fertilizer  legislation.  In 
practice  it  has  been  found  to  work  admirably  and  to  remove  a source  of  friction 
between  buyer  and  seller. 

Table  III  contains  a list  of  fertilizers  registered  and  on  sale  in  Indiana,  May  1, 
1905,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  make  such  a list.  A letter  was  sent  to  each  manufac- 
turer asking  him  to  indicate  any  registered  brands  that  were  no  longer  on  sale. 
As  a result  a considerable  number  of  registered  brands  have  been  removed  from 
the  list  issued  in  1904.  The  brands  removed  are  those  which  manufacturers  stated 
they  would  no  longer  place  on  sale. 

A summary  of  the  results  of  the  inspection  during  1904  as  compared  with  those 
of  1901,  1902  and  1903  can  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  following  table; 


Summary  of  Inspections  for  the  Past  Four  Years. 


1901 

1902 

,1903 

1904 

1. 

No.  of  samples  collected 

592 

679 

674 

643 

2. 

No.  equal  to  legal  guarantee  in  every  particular 

1 281 

335 

286 

248 

3. 

No.  equal  to  legal  guarantee  in  value 

’ 469 

564 

492 

451 

4. 

No.  within  10%  of  value  of  legal  guarantee 

85 

93 

139 

148 

5. 

No.  not  within  10%  of  value  of  legal  guarantee 

38 

22 

43 

44 

6. 

No.  in  which  one  or  more  ingredient  was  20%  or  more  below 
legal  guarantee 

103 

112 

138 

122 

13 


It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  above  summary  and  table  I on  pages  16  and 
17,  that  no  improvement  has  been  made  over  the  poor  showing  of  the  two  years 
previous,  30  per  cent,  of  the  brands  inspected  falling  below  the  guarantee  in  value 
of  plant  food  contained.  This  means  that  in  many  instances  the  farmer  is  not 
getting  what  he  is  paying  for  and  what  he  has  a right  to  expect  in  his  fertilizer. 
This  is  not  as  it  should  be.  It  will  be  noticed  by  referring  to  section  4 of  the 

Fertilizer  Law  that  there  is  a penalty  provided  for  the  sale  of  fertilizers  below 

the  legal  guarantee  in  composition. 

While  it  is  recognized  that  the  nature  of  the  ingredients  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fertilizers  is  such  as  to  render  thorough  mixing  difldcult,  and  that  conse- 

quently some  variation  from  the  legal  guarantee  in  composition  may  be  expected, 
still  it  is  nevertheless  certainly  true  that  a greater  number  than  70  per  cent,  should 
be  up  to  the  standard  in  total  value  of  the  ingredients  contained,  and  none 
should  show  a deficiency  of  more  than  20  per  cent,  in  any  one  ingredient.  It  is 
believed  that  a large  majority  of  the  firms  selling  fertilizers  in  the  state  are  at- 
tempting to  comply  with  the  law  in  regard  to  the  composition  of  their  goods  and 
that  they  are  doing  so  as  nearly  as  can  reasonably  be  expected.  The  analyses  show, 
however,  that  there  are  a few  firms  whose  goods,  on  the  average,  are  so  far 
below  the  legal  standard  as  to  indicate  either  gross  carelessness  or  an  attempt  to 
defraud. 

By  referring  to  table  I it  will  be  seen  that  the  goods  of  several  firms  were  found 
to  be  badly  below  the  guarantees.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  observed  as  many  as  one- 
half  the  brands  on  sale  fell  below  the  guarantees  in  value  of  plant  food  contained.  In 
one  or  two  cases  this  averaged  over  20  per  cent. 

The  facts  are  given  in  the  bulletin  and  it  is  for  the  farmers  to  say  whether  they 
will  continue  to  lose  money  by  buying  from  firms  whose  goods  are  constantly  badly 
below  the  legal  standard  in  composition  or  buy  from  firms  whose  goods  are  uniformly 
found  to  contain  the  amounts  of  plant  food  guaranteed  to  be  present. 

Manufacturers  are  supposed  to  know  the  composition  of  the  fertilizers 

they  offer  for  sale  and  they  are  at  liberty  to  make  any  guarantee  that  they 

may  desire.  But  after  the  guarantee  is  made  It  is  no  hardship  to  require  them 
to  adhere  to  the  guarantee  closely  enough  so  that  the  essential  character  of  a 
brand  is  maintained  and  the  value  of  the  goods  shall  not  fall  below  the  value  of 
the  guarantee.  Where  one  ingredient  is  low  on  account  of  imperfect  mixing,  other 
Ingredients  should  be  correspondingly  high  and  such  samples  would  appear  under 
line  3 in  the  above  summary  as  equal  to  the  legal  guarantee  in  value.  Line  4 
shows  that  there  are  some  samples  . in  which  the  purchaser  would  not  re- 
ceive what  he  is  entitled  to  receive,  but  in  our  opinion  the  deficiency  is  not 
large  enough  to  indicate  a deliberate  intent  to  defraud.  When  goods  fall  into 
the  class  shown  in  line  5 it  must  be  considered  due  to  inexcuable  carelessness, 
gross  ignorance,  or  an  intent  to  defraud.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  farmers 

cannot  afford  to  take  chances  on  this  class  of  goods,  since  the  deficiencies  some- 

times amount  to  more 'than  half  the  value  of  the  goods. 

The  goods  under  line  6 are  those  in  which  the  mixing  is  bo  bad  that  the 
essential  character  of  the  brand  is  changed.  Sometimes  the  goods  in  this  class, 
while  containing  less  than  four-fifths  as  much  of  one  ingredient  as  they  are 
guaranteed  to  contain,  have  enough  of  another  ingredient  to  make  the  value  of 
the  goods  as  great  as  required  by  the  guarantee.  But  even  these  samples  show 
such  bad  mixing  that  the  essential  character  of  the  brand  is  changed.  When  a 
purchaser  contracts  for  goods  containing  3 per  cent,  of  potash  and  9 per  cent,  of 
soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid  the  contract  cannot  be  filled  by  furnishing 
goods  with  1 per  cent,  of  potash  and  11  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phos- 
phoric acid,  even  though  the  nominal  commercial  value  of  the  two  kinds  of  goods 
might  not  be  very  different. 


14 


It  was  hoped  that  the  improvement  in  the  mixing  in  1904  would  be  such  that  line 
6 in  the  summary  on  pages  16  and  17  might  be  omitted,  but  in  a number  of  cases 
the  mixing  is  so  bad  that  we  have  deemed  it  but  fair  to  manufacturers  who  main- 
tain their  guarantees,  and  to  consumers,  to  call  attention  to  such  cases  by  adding 
lines  7 and  8. 

Necessity  for  Registering  Special  Brands. 

Many  inquiries  are  received  regarding  the  necessity  for  registering  fertilizer 
mixed  for  special  purposes  and  to  special  order.  By  referring  to  Section  1 of  the 
Indiana  Ferilizer  Law,  page  4,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  exceptions  are  made  and  in 
every  case  a certificate  containing  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the  location  of 
the  principal  office  of  the  manufacturer,  the  name  under  wffiich  the  fertilizer  will  be 
sold,  the  names  of  the  towns  in  Indiana  in  which  it  will  be  offered  for  sale,  and  the 
minimum  guarantee  must  be  filed  for  registration  with  the  State  Chemist. 

In  failing  to  register  special  mixtures  manufacturers  not  only  place  their  agents 
in  position  to  be  prosecuted,  but  their  customers  as  well,  since  it  is  a violation  of 
the  Indiana  Fertilizer  Law  to  have  untagged  fertilizer  in  one’s  possession.  Con- 
sumers are  therefore  cautioned  not  to  accept  any  fertilizer  which  does  not  have 
attached  to  each  and  every  package  the  label  of  the  State  Chemist. 

Under  the  working  regulations  of  this  office  the  registration  of  a certificate  is 
permanent  and  the  guarantee  for  a brand  cannot  be  changed. 

Alteration  of  Tags. 

In  two  cases  the  past  year  shipments  were  found  where  the  percentage  of  one 
or  more  ingredients  as  shown  on  the  State  Chemist's  label  was  changed,  the  original 
guarantee  being  marked  over  with  figures  in  red  ink.  In  one  case  the  per  cent,  of 
potash,  as  registered,  was  1.1  per  cent,  while  the  company  sold  the  brand  to  the  con- 
sumer with  the  understanding  that  it  would  contain  5 per  cent  of  potash  and  marked 
this  number  over  the  1.1  per  cent,  on  the  tag,  as  originally  issued.  In  the  second 
case  the  1.5  per  cent,  of  potash  guaranteed  was  marked  over  by  the  figure  5 in  red 
ink.  Such  use  of  the  State  Chemist’s  name  and  title  is  a clear  violation  of  section  4, 
of  the  Fertilizer  Law,  page  4. 

The  manufacturer  also  violated  Section  1 in  not  registering  a certificate  giving 
the  minimum  guarantee  as  5 per  cent,  of  potash.  Had  such  a certificate  been  pre- 
sented for  registration  the  fertilizer  would  necessarily  have  been  registered  under  a 
different  name  from  that  on  the  labels  which  were  attached  to  the  bags  in  the  ship- 
ments found. 

In  the  second  place  the  consumer  must  remember  that  the  guarantee  for  a 
brand  is  permanent  and  the  manufacturer  cannot  be  held  to  verbal  promises.  In  the 
cases  mentioned  the  guarantee  on  one  shipment  was, — 

0.0  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

1.1  per  cent,  of  potash  soluble  in  water. 

10.0  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid  and 

1.0  per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid, 

while  the  manufacturer  agreed  in  the  contract  to  furnish. 

0.0  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

5.0  per  cent,  of  potash  soluble  in  water. 

10.0  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid  and 

1.0  per  cent,  of  Insoluble  phosphoric  acid. 

The  analyses  of  three  samples  drawn  from  different  portions  of  the  shipment 
gave  respectively, — 


15 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

^Aver- 

age 

Per  cent,  of  nitrogen 

0.46 

0.35 

0.20 

0 34 

Per  cent,  of  potash  soluble  in  water 

1.85 

2.24 

3.94 

2.68 

Per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid 

8.22 

9.65 

5.78 

7.88 

Per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid 

5.30 

3.87 

3.46 

4.21 

Showing  conclusively  that  the  manufacturer  not  only  did  not  keep  his  verbal 
promise  but  furnished  a fertilizer  of  entirely  different  composition  and  not  even  up 
to  the  legal  guarantee. 

In  the  second  shipment  the  legal  guarantee  for  the  brand  was, 

1.7  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  (N). 

1.5  per  cent,  of  potash,  (K2O),  soluble  in  water. 

8.0  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  (P205),  and 

2.2  per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  (P205), 

while  the  manufacturer  through  his  agent  contracted  to  furnish  a fertilizer  with  the 
above  percentages  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  5 per  cent  of  potash. 

An  analysis  of  a sample  drawn  from  this  shipment  gave 

0.89  per.  cent  of  nitrogen,  (N). 

4.03  per  cent,  of  of  potash,  (K2O),  soluble  in  water, 

5.16  per  cent  of  soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  (P205),  and 

3.46  per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  (P205). 

In  neither  case  did  the  manufacturer  keep  his  contract  or  even  maintain  the 
legal  guarantee  for  the  brands.  Not  only  is  such  change  in  the  label  a violation  of 
the  law  and  an  injustice  to  the  consumer,  but  als'>  an  injustice  to  the  manufacturer 
who  obeys  the  law  in  every  particular,  and  in  accepting  such  shipments  consumers 
are  encouraging  manufacturers  to  violate  the  provisions  of  the  fertilizer  law  which 
was  put  in  force  for  their  protection. 

The  case  mentioned  has  been  reported  to  the  prosecutor  of  the  county  in  which 
the  sale  was  made  and  is  now  before  the  court  of  that  county. 

The  State  Chemist’s  labels  are  always  printed  and  manufacturers  in  changing  the 
figures  thereon  are  violating  the  law.  Consumers  should  refuse  to  accept  any  fer- 
tilizer with  such  changed  tags  attached  or  any  fertilizer  which  does  not  bear  the 
State  Chemist’s  label  showing  that  the  minimum  percentages  purchased  are  on  a 
certificate  registered  with  the  State  Chemist. 

Sale  of  Uiitafirprod  Goods. 

Two  cases  where  tags  were  not  attached  to  the  bags  as  required  by  law  were 
successfully  prosecuted  during  the  year  and  our  deputies  have  been  instructed  to 
file  affidavits  in  every  case  where  such  violation  of  the  law  is  found. 

Consumers  should  take  special  note  of  this  section  of  the  law,  since  for  having 
such  untagged  fertilizer  in  their  possession  they  are  liable  to  the  same  penalty  as 
the  manufacturer,  agent  or  dealer,  who  offers  it  for  sale. 

Prices  Used  hi  Valuation  of  Fertilizers. 

In  computing  the  comparative  value  of  fertilizers  we  have  used  the  follow- 
ing rates: 

Nitrogen  Viy^  cents  per  pound. 

Potash  6 cents  per  pound. 

Soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid  6 cents  per  pound. 

In  bone  and  tankage,  total  phosphoric  acid  3%  cents  per  pound. 


16 


In  mixed  goods  containing  nitrogen,  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  2 cents  per 
pound. 

In  goods  containing  no  nitrogen  no  value  is  given  to  insoluble  phosphoric 
acid. 

If  one  wishes  to  use  the  unit  system,  that  is,  the  value  of  each  1 per  cent  of 
each  ingredient,  these  values  become: 

Nitrogen  $3.50  per  unit.  , 

Potash  $1.20  per  unit. 

Soluble  and  reverted  phosphoric  acid  $1.20  per  unit. 

Phosphoric  acid  in  bone  $0.70  per  unit 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  goods  containing  nitrogen  $0.40  per  unit. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  these  rates  are  not  used  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
dicating the  agricultural  value  of  the  fertilizer,  or  the  return  which  may  be  ex- 
pected from  the  use  of  the  fertilizer.  This  matter  is  controlled  by  the  soil,  sea- 
son, kind  of  crop  and  method  of  applying  the  fertilizer.  Neither  do  we  attempt 
to  indicate  the  exact  value  at  which  every  fertilizer  ought  to  be  sold  at  every 
point  in  the  State,  nor  to  take  into  account  the  long  credits  often  extended  to  pur- 
chasers of  fertilizers.  We  use  these  rates  solely  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the 
value  of  the  goods  as  guaranteed  by  the  manufacturer  with  the  value  of  the  sam- 
ples we  collect  in  the  open  market.  Purchasers  may  find  these  rates  of  use  in 
comparing  the  relative  values  of  similar  brands  of  goods  offered  by  different 
manufacturers. 

The  following  tables  show  results  of  analyses  of  samples  collected  during  1904, 
lists  cf  brands  legally  on  sale  in  the  state  and  manufacturers  of  same:  . 


TABLE  1.  SiimmarY  of  the  Results  of  Inspection. 


MANUFACTURER. 

? 

’7i 

"o  is 
c 

z 

2 

5 ^ 

o 

2 ..  . 

o -S 

Z 

c; 

> \ 

No.  Within  10  Per 
Cent,  of  Vuluo  of 
Guarantee. 

No.  Not  Witliin  10  Per 
Out.  of  Value  of 
Guarantee. 

o -2 

3 S ^ 

III 

■^1! 

C 

. C c. 
c — o 

z 

c "c 

Pc 

2 o 
C 2 2 

'ill 

t.  c, 

d 

Z 

No.  with  1 or  more  in- 
gredient 60  per  cent 
below  Guarantee. 

Abbott  <5c  Martin  Rendering  Co.,  The 

1 

1 

6 

1 ^ 

1 1 

5 

3 

1 

Akin  Fertilizer  Co 

3 

2 

3 

1 0 

1 

0 

0 

American  Agricxiltural  Chemical  Co.,  The.* 

i ^ 

14 

32 

1 8 

1 1 

2 

1 

0 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  (The)  Great  East- 

1 

1 

em  Fertilizer  Branch 

1 3 

2 

3 

1 0 

0 

0 

0 

M.  E.  Wheeler  & Co.,  Branch  of  the  American  Agri-  | 

1 

! 

1 

cultural  Chemical  Co  

1 10 

5 

7 

3 

I 0 

0 

0- 

0 

Anderson  Fertilizing  Co ' 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 0 

1 

0 

0 

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The ’ 

! 26 

16 

26 

1 0 

1 

1 

0 

Bash  Packing  Co 

11 

1 

1 

5 

1 5 

6 

0 

Baii-shack  & Sons,  Robert 

2 

2 

2 

1 0 

0 

0 

0 

BoUes  W.  R 

1 

1 

1 

1 0 

0 

0 

0 

Bowker  Fertilizer  Co 

21 

7 

10 

10 

1 1 

0 

0 

■0 

iBuckeve  Fertilizer  Co 

3 

0 

3 

1 0 

1 

0 

0 

Buhner,  Ferdinand  

5 

4 

5 

1 0 

0 

0 

0 

Chicago  Fertilizer  Co.,  The 

7 

0 

3 

4 

0 

4 

3 

1 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  The  

26 

9 

13 

13 

0 

3 

1 

0 

Continental  Fertilizer  Co 

1 7 

2 

6 

1 

1 

1 

0 

Corya,  J.  W 

1 2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Currie  Fertilizer  Co.,  The I 

1 7 

5 1 

1 6 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Darling  &:  Companv 

; 14 

8 

14 

0 

0 

0 

0 

D.  A K.  Fertilizer  Companv 

' 6 

2 

5 

1 

0 

2 

2 

1 

Empire  Carbon  Works  

1 1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Empire  Guano  Co.,  The  

6 

0 

0 

1 5 

1 

0 

0 

0 

Ewing,  Geo.  M 

4 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Farmers  Fertilizer  Co 

1 19 

8 

18 

1 

0 

3 

2 

0 

Fox  Chemical  Co 

1 18 

6 

14 

3 

1 

1 

0 

! 0 

Globe  Fertilizer  Co | 

33  1 

14 

26  1 

1 5 1 

2 

5 

3 1 

0 

Hardv  Packing  Co 

1 ^ 

1 

2 

1 2 

1 0 

2 

1 

1 1 

Hess  & Bro.,  S.  M 

! 5 

3 

4 

1 1 

1 0 

1 0 

0 

1 0 

17 


Summary  of  Results  of  Inspection — Concluded. 


MAN'UFACTURKK. 

No  of  Samples  Col- 
lected. 

No.  Equal  to  Guaran- 
tee in  Every  Par- 
ticular. 

No.  Equal  in  Value  to 
Guarantee. 

No.  Within  10  Per 
Cent,  of  Value  of 
Guarantee. 

No.  Not  Within  10  Per 
Cent,  of  Value  of 
Guarantee. 

No.  With  1 or  more 
ingredient  20  Per 
cent  below  Guarantee 

No.  with  1 or  more  in- 
gredient 30  per  cent 
below  Guarantee. 

No.  with  1 or  more  in- 
gredient 50  per  cent 
below  Guarantee. 

Hopkins  & Co.,  A 

2 

0 

0 

0 

2 

2 

1 

1 

Hopkins  Fertilizer  Co 

11 

0 

1 

1 8 

2 

5 

1 

0 

Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co.,  L.  W 

4 

3 

3 

1 

1 0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1 0 

1 

1 

1 

Indianapolis  Rendering  Co 

16 

2 

13 

1 

2 

5 

1 

1 

Jarecki  Chemical  Co 

13 

4 

6 

6 

1 

4 

1 

0 

Johnson,  D.  B 

2 

1 

1 

0 

1 

1 

0 

0 

Jones’  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville  and  Cincinnati 

8 

3 

6 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Jones,  J.  B 

1 1 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 1 

1 

1 1 

0 

1 0 

1 0 

1 0 

Kaufman  Fertilizer  Co 

1 16 

0 

2 

5 

9 

12 

9 

9 

1 1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co 

1 14 

2 

10 

3 

1 

2 

1 

0 

Madison  Fertilizer  and  Glue  Works 

I 2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

0 

Mathiason  M’f’g.  Co.,  P.  B 

1 2 

1 

1 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Mayer  M’f’g.  Co.,  A.  B 

4 

2 

4 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Mendenhall  & Spillman 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

^^prtz,  Thomas  

1 

1 1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Michigan  Carbon  Works 

1 15 

8 

12 

1 

2 

2 1 

1 0 

0 

Morris  & Co.,  Nelson 

14 

8 

12 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2McCallum  & Co.,  Jas 

1 8 

3 

5 

3 

0 

3 

3 

0 

National  Fertilizer  Co | 

7 

5 

7 

0 

1 

0 

0 

Norris  Fertilizer  Co 

15 

10 

14 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Northwestren  Fertilizing  Co 

21 

11 

17 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Ohio  Farmers’  Fertilizer  Co 

9 

1 

4 

4 

1 

7 

5 

3 

Packers’  Fertilizer  Association 

15 

8 

10 

1 5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Packers’  Fertilizer  Co.,  (Cincinnati  and  St.  Bernard.) 

15 

1 

8 

1 6 

1 

7 

2 

0 

Packer  Fertilizer  Co.,  (Indianapolis) | 

Q 1 

3 1 

7 1 

2 

1 

2 1 

2 

0 

Pero  & Stoecker | 

3 1 

2 1 

I 3 1 

1 

0 1 

1 0 1 

0 1 

1 0 

Rauh  & Sons  Fertilizer  Co.,  E | 

23  1 

7 

19  1 

1 1 

3 1 

7 1 

2 1 

1 

Read  Phosphate  Co., | 

13 

8 

11 

1 1 

1 1 

2 1 

1 

0 

Schmadel,  Louis  | 

3 

0 

3 

0 

1 

0 

0 

^uthern  Indiana  Fertilizer  Co | 

4 

1 

1 



3 1 

0 

1 1 

0 

0 

Star  Tankage  & Fertilizer  Works 

3 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

St.  .John,  Chas.  E 

1 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Swift  & Company 

21 

9 

14 

6 

1 

3 

2 

1 

Tennessee  Fertilizer  Co 

14 

4 

8 

6 

0 

1 1 

0 

0 

Tuscarora  Fertilizer  Co 

15  1 

11 

13 

2 

0 1 

0 1 

0 

0 

Walton  Fertilizer  Co.,  The 

1 1 

0 

1 

0 1 

1 1 

0 

0 

Weidman,  Augustus  

2 

2 

1 

0 1 

0 

0 

0 

Western  Fertilizer  Works 

6 1 

3 

5 

1 

0 1 

2 

1 

0 

Wuichet  Fertilizer  Co.,  The | 

8 1 

2 1 

3 

3 1 

2 1 

5 

5 

0 

Totals  1 

643  1 248  1 451  | 

148  1 

44  1 122  1 

65  1 

21 

ilncludes  results  of  inspection  of  the  Buckeye  Phosphate  Co.,  brands. 

2Manufactured  and  sold  by  The  Wuichet  Fertilizer  Co.,  successors  to  Jas.  McCallum  & Co. 


18 


TABLE  2. — Report  of  Inspection  of  Fertilizers  Collected  in  1904. 


1 Number 

1 _ 

■ CQ 
0 

1 .2 
! ’0 

ig 

1 E 

c‘42 

J 0 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rer.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

0.4 

2.6 

8.0 

1.0 

0.4 

2.2 

8.6 

3.3 

0.3[ 

2.2[ 

7.8[ 

2.1[ 

0.3 

2.4 

7.5 

2.3 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

0.5 

2.4 

8.3 

3.1 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

0.7 

1.1 

8.0 

3.9 

0.5[ 

0.6| 

8.1| 

2.3 

1.2 

0.8 

1.6 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

1.7 

3.8 

9.7 

2.7 

14.0 

1«0 

11.3 

7.3 

14.7 

2.5 

3.0 

3.7 

3.8 

1.7 

1.2 

11.0 

6.0 

1.3 

1.0 

13.3 

3.4 

4.0 

3.0 

1 

1 

LABEL 


Sample 
Taken  at 


S § 

o o 

^ U 

0.  og. 


Abbott  & Martin  Rendering  Co.,  The 
Columbus,  Ohio 

Peerless  Bone  and  Potash 

Peerless  Bone  and  Potash 

Peerless  Bone  and  Potash 

Peerless  Bone  and  Potash 

Harvest  King 

Harvest  King 

Abbott’s  Ideal  Grain  Grower 

Abbott’s  Ideal  Grain  Grower 

Abbott’s  Ideal  Grain  Grower 

Fine  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Fine  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Tobacco  and  Potato  Special 

Tobacco  and  Potato  Special 

Hercules  Phosphate 

Hercules  Phosphate 

Hercules  Phosphate 


Akin  Fertilizer  Co.,  Evansville,  Ind. 

Pure  Raw  Bone 

Pure  Raw  Bone 

Pure  Raw  Bone 

Bone  Meal 

Bone  Meal 


Anderson  Fertilizing  Co.,  Anderson,  Ind. 

A Soft  Bone  Fertilizer 

A Soft  Bone  Fertilizer 


2850 

2850 

2850 

3210 

3210 

3213 

3213 

3213 

3352 

3352 

3419 

3419 

3420 
3420 
3420 


2962 

2962 

2962 

2976 

2976 


3317 

3317 


2911 

2912 

2913 


2914 


2916 

2916 


2917 

*2918 


2919 

2920 


2921 

2922 


2923 


I Guaranteed 

Bloomington  | Found 

Salem  [Found j 

North  Madison  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Bloomington  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Bloomington  [Found 

Salem  [Found [ 

[ Guaranteed 

Wirt  [Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 


Bloomington 


Bloomington 
Salem  


Evansville  . 
Elberfeld  .. 


Evansville 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

[Guaranteed 
. . [Found 


Guaranteed 


American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  The 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

Cleveland  Dryer,  Tobacco,  Potato 

and  General  Crop  Fertilizer.... 
Cleveland  Dryer,  Tobacco,  Potato 

and  General  Crop  Fertilizer. . . . 

Cleveland  Dryer  Phospho  Bone 

Cleveland  Dryer  Phospho  Bone 

Cleveland  Dryer  XXX  Superphosphate.. 
Cleveland  Dr5^er  XXX  Superphosphate.. 
Cleveland  Dryer  Ohio  Seed  Maker 

with  Potash  

Cleveland  Dryer  Ohio  Seed  Maker 

with  Potash 

Cleveland  Dryer  Ohio  Seed  Maker 

Cleveland  Dryer  Ohio  Seed  Maker 

Cleveland  Dryer  Forest  Ciiy  Buckeye 
Ammoniated  Bone  Superphos- 
phate   

Cleveland  Dryer  Forest  City  Buckeye 
Ammoniated  Bone  Superphos- 
phate   

Zell’s  Little  Giant 

Zell’s  Little  Giant 

Zell’s  Dissolved  S.  C.  Phosphate 

Zell’s  Dissolved  S.  C.  Phosphate , 

Zell’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate i 

Zell’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate [ 

Zell’s  Economizer  [ 

Zell’s  Economizer  | 

Bradley’s  Com  and  Wheat  Phosphate..! 
Bradley’s  Corn  and  Wheat  Phosphate..! 
Bradley’s  Com  and  Wheat  Phosphate..! 

Bradley’s  B.  D.  Sea  Fowl  Guano • 

Bradley’s  B.  D.  Sea  Fowl  Guano [ 

Bradley’s  .Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash..! 

Bradley’s  Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash | 

Bradley’s  Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash....  ( 

Bradley’s  Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash | 

Bradley’s  Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash.. | 


28001 

I 

2800!  2925 


2802 1 2926 

28031 

28031  2927 

I 

28041 


2804 [ 2928 
2805|... 
28051  2929 


I 

28061  2930 

2807 [ 

2807!  2931 

2808 1 

28081  2932 
2809 (... 
2809 [ 2933 

2811 ( 

281] ! 2934 

28131 

25131  2935 
2813  [ 29.36 
2814[... 

281 4|  29.37 
2815|... 
18151  29.38 
.•■8151  2939 

21151  2940 
2516[... 


[Guaranteed 


New  Albany  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Conners\'ille  . [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Connersville  .[Found 


Guaranteed 


Weisburg  . . . [ Found 

[Guaranteed 

Connersville  [Found 


Bloomington  [Found 

[Guaranteed  [ 

Bloomington  [ Found 

[Guaranteed  | 

Bloomington  [Found j 

[Guaranteed  I 

Zanesville  ...[Found [ 

Bedford  [Found j 

[Guaranteed 

Pekin  [Found | 

[Guaranteed! 

Corydon  JuncIFound 

<^orydon  IFound 

St.  Joe  Station[Found 

[Guaranteed 


I 

0.8|  4.0[  10.0 


2.6[  8.1 
1.0|  10.0 


1.21 


2.0 


9.3 

14.0 

13.6 

8.0 


[Guaranteed  [2.4 

I I 

I I 

Elkhart  [Found 2.21 

[Guaranteed  | 0.8[ 

Bedford  [ Found ( 0 . 9 ( 

[Guaranteed  [ 


2.0 

1.0 

0.9 


0.8[ 

1.0[ 

0.8[ 

1.2 

0.9| 

2.0! 

2.2[ 


1.0[ 


2.0 

2.2 

1.0[ 

1.3[ 

1.2 

1.5| 

1.6[ 

2.01 

1.7[ 

1.8! 

1.9[ 

2.0[ 


9.7 

7.0 
6.4 

12.0 

12.8 

14.01 

14.01 

8.0 

8.2I 

10.01 

9.3( 

10.01 
8.0 
8.2I 
10. 0[ 
9.8[ 
9.7[ 
10.31 
8.0[ 


2.1 

2.4 

'i’.6 


2.11  8.2|  3.9| 

....[  10.0 [ 

....[  8.5  3.4 


2.0  9.0[. 


4.3 


2.2 


4.9 


3.0 


2.4 


3.4 

2.0 


3.9 


27.0 

31.1 


20.0 

20.0 

20.6 


17.0 

23.0 


1.3|. 

1.41. 

1.5[. 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Number 

• CQ 

[3 

*3 

^ r-i 

ST  O 

e 

s-B 

o 

Sample 
Taken  at 


2 fe 
."S  o. 


• OI  c 

oti  S 

m ||  U 


T3  O }i 
CJ3  ft 
Xft-O 

4>  — 

3 

3 

3 


a;  o ft 

S'g.T? 

3 m 
aft 


. 3 s 

g U O 


American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  The 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

Bradley’s  Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash.. 
Bradley’s  Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash.. 
Bradley’s  Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash.. 

Bradley’s  Niagara  Phosphate 

Bradley’s  Niagara  Phosphate 

Bradley’s  Niagara  Phosphate 

Bradley’s  Niagara  Phosphate 

Bradley’s  Potato  and  Root  Phosphate.. 
Bradley’s  Potato  and  Root  Phosphate.. 
Bradley’s  Potato  and  Root  Phosphate.. 

Bradley’s  Soluble  Dissolved  Bone 

Bradley’s  Soluble  Dissolved  Bone 

Bradley’s  Soluble  Dissolved  Bone 

Cumberland  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate.. 
Cumberland  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate.. 

Cumberland  Guano 

Cumberland  Guano 

Cumberland  Guano 

Cumberland  Hawkeye  Fertilizer 

Cumberland  Hawkeye  Fertilizer 

Cumberland  Hawkeye  Fertilizer 

Cumberland  Acid  Phosphate 

Cumberland  Acid  Phosphate 

Cumberland  Potato  Phosphate 

Cumberland  Potato  Phosphate 

Ground  Bone 

Ground  Bone  

Standard  “A”  Brand 

Standard  “A”  Brand 

Standard  Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone.. 
Standard  Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone.. 

Standard  Guano 

Standard  Guano 

Standard  Guano 

Standard  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Standard  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Special  Bone  Meal 

Special  Bone  Meal 

Special  Bone  Meal 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  (The) 
Great  Eastern  Fertilizer  Branch, 
Rutland,  Vt. 

Great  Eastern  English  Wheat  Grower.. 
Great  Eastern  English  Wheat  Grower.. 
Great  Eastern  Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 
Great  Eastern  Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 
Great  Eastern  Unammoniated  Wheat 

Special  

Great  Eastern  Unammoniated  Wheat 
Special  

M.  E.  Wheeler  & Co.,  Branch  of  The 

American  Agricultural  Chem- 
ical Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Wisdom’s  Choice 

Wisdom’s  Choice 

Wisdom’s  Choice 

Electrical  Dissolved  Bone  

Electrical  Dissolved  Rone 

Electrical  Dis.solved  Rone j 

Wheat  and  Clover  Fertilizer 

Wheat  and  Clover  Fertilizer 

Royal  Wheat  Grower 

Royal  Wheat  Grower 

Royal  Wheat  Grower 

Royal  Wheat  Grower 

Com  Fertilizer 


2816 

2816 

2816 

2817 

2817 

2817 

2817 

2819 

2819 

2819 

2821 

2821 

2821 

2822 

2822 

2824 

2824 

2824 

2825 
2825 

2825 

2826 
2826 
2827 
2827 
2870 
2870 
2872 

2872 

2873 

2873 

2874 
2874 
2874 


3451 

3451 

3453 

3453 

3456 

3456 


2941  Corydon  June 
2842  St.  Joe  Station 
2943,  Bedford  .. 


June 


2944!  Corydon 
2945  Corydon 
2846  St.  Joe  Station 


Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

I I Guaranteed 

2947!  Corydon  June  I Found 

2948  Pekin  I Found 

I I Guaranteed 

2949 ' Salem  I Found 

2950  Pekin  | Found 

I Guaranteed  | 

2951  Taswell  | Found | 

I Guaranteed  I 

2952;  Madison  [Found | 

2953  Spencer  [Found [ 

I [ Guaranteed  [ 

2954  Leipsic  I Found | 

2955  Spencer  [Found ( 

I Guaranteed  [ 

2956 1 Spencer  [ Found I 

I [Guaranteed 

2957  Georgetown  . [ Found | 

I Guaranteed  | 

2958  Bedford  [ Found I 

I [Guaranteed  | 

2959  Georgetown 


1.0 

2.1 

1.5 

2.0 

1.1 

1.7 

0.8 

1.0 

0.8 

1.2 

1.0 

1.0 

0.9 

0.8 

0.8 

4.0 

0.9 

3.8 

1.1 

3.8 

1.0 

1.0 

1.2[ 

0.8[ 

0.8 

0.9 


2961 


2963 


2964 

2965 


Sellersburg 


[Found 
[Guaranteed 

. [Found 

Guaranteed 

Georgetown  ..[Found 

Corydon  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Mitchell  [Found 

Guaranteed 

Bloomington  [Found 

Bedford  [Found [ 


2.0 

2.1 

1.9 

1.0 

1.1 

0.9 


4.0 

4.0 


7.3 

7.3 

8.0 

7.0 

6.6 

7.4 

6.5 

8.0 
7.2 
7.4 

14.0 

12.4 
14.2 

14.0 

13.5 
8.0 
7.4 
7.8 

7.0 

8.0 

6.6 

10.0 
9.6 
8.0 
7.1 


1.0 

1.2 

2.0 

2.2 

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 


1.2  . 
1.3[. 
1.6[. 


7.0 

6.6 

8.0 
8.3 
8.0 
7.7 
8.0 

14.0 

14.0 


2967 


[Guaranteed  0.8  2.0[  8.0[ 

Osgood  .* [Found [ 1.0|  2.0[  7.4[ 

[Guaranteed  [ [ 2.0[  10. 0[ 

Osgood  [Found [ [ 2.0[  11. 5[ 

I I I [ 

[Guaranteed  [ [ [ 12.0 

I ill 

2968,  Osgood  [Found [ [ [ 12. 9[ 


3092 
3092 
3092 
3094 
3094  2971 

3094 [ 2972 

3095 [ 

3095 I 2973 

3096  

3096  2974 


2969]  French 
2970  Sunman 


Bloomington 
Elberfeld  . . 


Weisburg 


3096  [ 
3096  [ 


Corydon  .Tunc 
2975 1 K n i gh  t sto  wn 
2976iChrisney  


I I 

[Guaranteed]., 

Lick.  [Found . , 

[Found I . , 

[Guaranteed  [., 

[Found I 

[Found 

IGuaranteed  | | 

[Found I [ 

[Guaranteed  [ 0.8[ 

[Found I l.o| 

i Found ( 1 .ij 

[Found 1.2| 

[Guaranteed  [ 1.6| 


2.0[ 

2.0[ 

2.0| 

2.l| 

2.1[ 

1.8[ 

2.01 


10. 0[ 
9.3| 
10.81 
14. 0[ 
13.11 
14. 3[ 
10. 0[ 
9.81 
8.0 
8.2 

7.5 

9.6 

8.0[ 


2.4 

5.5 
4.8 


2.7 

2.7 

2.2 


2.2 

3.2 


1.1 

1.7 


3.1 


2.3 

5.1 


1.6 

2.4 


2.3 


3.0 


2.3 

3.9 


1.3 


1.0 

3.9 

1.0 

1.8 

2.0 

3.6 


2.0 

4.3 
3.9 
2.0 

3.3 

1.5 

1.0 

4.5 

1.0 

2.6 

3.8 

3.9 

1 .0 


20.0 

21.3 


25.0 

26.5 


20 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Number 


gg- 

c 


Sample 
Taken  at 


c 

fl  o> 
5 o 
bo  , 

o t- 

•tJ 

2 


0) 

a A 
(2’"' 


c 2 a 

T3 

^ . O 

>-«l5 


<0  o a 
3 a'2 

5 o S 
O j3-< 


-o  c 
<11 

<«  « « 
©•<  u 

g.sS 

si 

o a 


M.  E.  Wheeler  & Co.,  Branch  of  The 

American  Agricultural  Chem- 
ical Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Corn  Fertilizer 

Potato  Manure 

Potato  Manure 


3097 

3098 


2977 


2978 


All 

Star 

Star 

Star 

Star 


Armour  Fertilizer  Works  (The)  Chicago,  111. 

Raw  Bone 

Raw  Bone 

Bone  Meal 

Bone  Meal 

Fruit  and  Root  Crop  Special 

Fruit  and  Root  Crop  Special 

Fruit  and  Root  Crop  Special 

All  Soluble 

Soluble 

Phosphate 

Phosphate 

Phosphate 

Phosphate 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Grain  Grower 

Ammoniated  Bone  with  Potash 

Ammoniated  Bone  with  Potash 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oat  Special 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oat  Special 

Wheat,  Corn  and  Oat  Special 

Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Acid  Bone  Meal 

Acid  Bone  Meal 

German  Kainit 

German  Kainit 

Armour’s  Steamed  Bone 

Armour’s  Steamed  Bone 

Armour’s  Steamed  Bone 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Hoosier  Corn  Grower 

Hoosier  Corn  Grower 

High  Grade  Potato 

High  Grade  Potato 

Armour’s  Standard 

Armour’s  Standard | 

Armour’s  Standard 

Soluble  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Soluble  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Soluble  Phosphate  and  Potash 


2979 


2981 

2982 


2903 

2903 

2904 
2904 
2906 
2906 
2906 

29071 

29071  2983 

29081 

2908 1 2984 

2908  2985 
29081 

2909  . 

29091  2987 

2910 
2910 

2910 

2911 
2911 
2938 
2938 


Bloomington  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Corydon  June  IFound 


Loogootee 


Bash  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Wayne, 

Wayne  Raw  Bone 

Wayne  Raw  Bone 

Utility  Phosphate 

Utility  Phosphate 

Utility  Phosphate 

Utility  Phosphate 

Bash’s  Grain  Grower 

Bash’s  Grain  Grower 

Bash’s  Grain  Grower 

Bash’s  Potash  Special 

Bash’s  Potash  Special 

Bash’s  Pota.sh  Special 

Bash’s  16%  Phosphate 


Ind. 


Bash’s  16% 
Bash’s  16% 
Ba.sh’s  14% 
Bash’s  14% 


Phosphate. 

Phosphate. 

Phosphate. 

Phosphate. 


2958 

2958 

3020 

3020 

3312 

3312 

3331 

3331 

3331 

3477 

3477 

3480 

3480 

3509 

3509 
'3510 
35101 

3510 
3536 
3536 
3536 


2990 

2990 

3449 

3449 

3449 

3449 


3599 

3599 

3599 

3604 

3604 

3604 

3605 
3605 


2990 


2991 

2992 


2995 


2997 


3000 


3001 


3004 


3005 


3006 


Bckerty 


Salem  

Heltonville 


1 Guaranteed 

. . IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Heltonville  ..IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Eckerty  IFound 

Orleans  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Lexington  . . 1 Found 

1 Guaranteed 

Sal  m IFound 

-Nulltown  Found 

Morgantown  . Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

1 Guaranteed 

Orleans  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Lexington  . . IFound 

Orleans  (Found 

(Guaranteed 

Rushv  ille  1 Found 

1 Guaranteed 

Milton  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Pleasant  Ridge  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Heltonville  ..[Found 

1 Guaranteed 

Nulltown  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Lexington  . . 1 Found 

1 Guaranteed 

Salem  IFound 

I Guaranteed 

Salem  IFound | 

Orleans  IFound 

1 Guaranteed 

Eckerty  [Found 

Oakland  City.  (Found 


3.7 

3.8 
2.4 
3.1 
1.6 

1.9 
2.8 
2.8 
2.81 


1.6 
1.6 
1.9 
2.4 
2.31 
0.81 
0.81 
I 0.91 

4.1 

4.2 

1. 

2.0 


Guaranteed 

Ramsey  | Found 

I Guaranteed 

‘Corydon  June  Found 

30071  Ramsey  Found 

30081  Bloomington  Found 

( [Guaranteed 

3009  Salem  IFound | 

3010  Bloomington  IFound .[ 

1 1 Guaranteed  | 

3011 1 Salem  |Found | 

3012  Ramsey  |Found 1 


0.8 

1.0 

1.6 

1.7 

0.8 

1.2 

1.7 


2.01  8.71  3.7 
3.0  8.0  1.0 
3.3  8.8  2.5 


5.01 

5.01 

3.0 

4.0 

5.2 


2.0 

3.2 

2.0 

2.3 

2.4 

2.01 

2.51 

1.01 

1.51 

1.01 

7.0 

9.0 


12.5 

12.5 


8.0 

8.81 

9.3| 

8.0| 

6.6| 

14.0 
16.6 

14.2 

16.2 

10.0 
10.2 

8.0 

9.3 

8.3 
6.0 
6.2 
7.01 
7.41 
7.01 
8.0 
7.9 

11.0 

11.11 


2.0 

0.9 

1.5 
2.0 
4.1 
2.0 
0.2 
0.0 
0.1 
2.0 
0.5 
2.0 
2.0 

2.4 

2.0 

3.4 
2.0 
0.91 

1.6 
2.0 
0.4 
7.0 

13.2 


48.0 
49.5 

4.0 
4.11 

10.01 

11.61 

3.0( 

4.11 

3.8| 

4.01 
4.3 
4.7( 

I 
I 


8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
7.3 
8.01 
9.6 
7.0 
10.0 
11. 3‘ 
10.7 

I 


2.0 

0.9 

2.0 

3.7 

2.0 

1.7 
3.0 


3013 1 Salem  | Found 1 1 [ 

3014  Ramsey  IFound 

I I Guaranteed 

3016  Bloomington  (Found 


4.0 

3.3 

|. 

1. 

1.8 

1.5[ 

10.5 

3.3 

1.2 

i.oi 

9.2 

1 5.8 

1.2 

1.4| 

11.01 

1 3.6 

1.1 

1.3| 

8.61 

1 2.9 

1.21 

[ 2.01 

8.0| 

I 1.0 

i.o( 

1.61 

6.9| 

1.7 

0.81 

2.21 

7.71 

1.1 

....1 

I 4.01 

10. 0| 

1.0 

...| 

2.21 

11.61 

1.3 

2.1| 

11.21 

2.0 

16.0 

1.0 

...I 

;;;;;; 

14.11 

15.31 

14.01 

14.41 

1.7| 

2.2 

1 

1 

j 

1.0 

1 

1.5| 

22.0 

25.8 

24.0 

25.2 


20.0 

25.3 

25.4 


21.8 

18.9 


21 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Number 

. ca 

1 

l§ 

e 

C’-M 

o 

Sample 
Taken  at 


I-Sq. 


^5  o 

11^ 


a>  o a 
3 to  o 
0 


Bausback  & Sons,  Rob’t.  Shelbyville,  Ind. 

Sott  Bone 

Soft  Bone  

Fine  Raw  Bone 

Fine  Raw  Bone 


Bolles,  W.  R.,  Ewing, 
Bolles  Bone  Meal... 
Bolles  Bone  Meal... 


Ind. 


Bowker’s 
Bowker’s  Fish 
Bowker’s  Fish 


Bowker  ‘Fertilizer  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Bowker’s  Bone  Meal 

Bowker’s  Bone  Meal 

Bowker’s  Bone  Meal 

Fish  Guano 

Guano 

Guano 

Bowker’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate. 
Bowker’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate. 
Bowker’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate. 
Bowker’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate. 

Bowker’s  Soluble  Bone 

Bowker’s  Soluble  Bone 

Bowker’s  Soluble  Bone 

Bowker’s  Soluble  Bone 

Harvest  Bone 

Harvest  Bone 

Harvest  Bone 

Bowker’s  Potash  Fertilizer 

Bowker’s  Potash  Fertilizer 

Bowker’s  Potash  Fertilizer 

Bowker’s  Potash  Fertilizer 


3007 

3007 

3008 


3634 

3634 


2953 

2953 

2953 

2954 
2954 


3016 


3017 


3018 


3019 

3020 


3023 

3024 

3025 


3021 
2954 1 3022 
2955 
2955 
2955 

2955 

2956 
2956 
2956 
2956 
3287 
3287 
3287 
3311 
3311 
3311 
3311 


Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash 

Bowker’s  10  Per  Cent  Manure 

Bowker’s  10  Per  Cent  Manure 

Bowker’s  10  Per  Cent  Manure 

Bowker’s  10  Per  Cent  Manure 


3459 

3459 

3459 

3460 
3460 
3460 
3460 


3026 

3027 

3028 


3029 

3030 


3031 

3032 


[Guaranteed 

Shelbyville  . . | Found 

I Guaranteed 

Acton  [Found 


[Guaranteed 

Ewing  [Found 


Rose  Lawn 
Bedford 


New  Albany, 
Bloomfield  . 


Dale  

Ellettsville 
Bedford  . . 


Marengo  , 
Bloomfield 
Degonia 


Salem  . 
Bedford 


Salem  . . . 
Bloomfield 
Rushville 


3034  Dale  

3035  Bloomfield 


[Guaranteed  1.5 

.[Found 1.6 

, [Found I 1.6| 

[Guaranteed  [ 0.7' 

.[Found 

[ Found  [ 

[Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

[Found 

[Guaranteed 

[Found 

[Found. 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 


0.7 

1.0 

0.8| 

....[ 


3036 

3037 

3038 


Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Muriate  of  Potash  

Muriate  of  Potash 


3529 
3529  3039 


Buckeye  Phosphate  Co.,  The  Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Complete  Fertilizer  

Complete  Fertilizer  


Buckeye  Fertilizer  Co.,  The  Columbus,  Ohio 

Our  Special  Com  and  Wheat  Grower 

Our  Special  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Special  Blood  and  Potash  Mixture 

Special  Blood  and  Potash  Mixture 

Buhner,  Ferdinand,  Seymour,  Ind. 

Buhner’s  All  Crop  Grower 

Buhner’s  All  Crop  Grower 

Buhner’s  All  Crop  Grower 

Ammoniated  Ground  Bone 

.\mmoniated  Ground  Bone 

Buhner’s  Dissolved  Bone 

Buhner’s  Dis.solvcd  Bone 

Buhner’s  Dissolved  Bone 


Chicago  Fertilizer  Co.,  The  Chicago,  Ills. 

Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Bone,  Blood  and  Potash | 


3088 


3372 

3372 

3616 

3616 


3316 

3.316 

3316 

3327 

3327 

.3486 

3486 

3486 


.3011 

.3011 


Rose  Lawn . 

Dale  

Dale  


0.7 


Degonia 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

[Guaranteed 

[Found I 1.1 

[Found I 0. 

Found I 0.8 

I I 


(Guaranteed 
Found 


3040  Scottsburg 


3041  Scottsburg 

i 

3042  Underwood 


3043 1 Seymour 
3044' Seymour 


.3045  Seymour 


.3046  ^Seymour 
.3047  S<‘ymour 


Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Giiaranteed 

Found 

Found 


.3048  Norris 


(Guaranteed 
Found 


1.2| 
1.  ■ 


3.0 

2.9 

2.9 


1.0 

1.4 

1.2 

5.0 

5.11 

4.8 

4.9 


2.0 

2.1 

1.9 

10.0 

9.5 

11.0 

11.0 


60.0 

46.4 


2.6 

2.6 


1.0 

4.1 

4.0 

3.5 


1 

1.0 

1.6 


2.0 

2.6| 


8.0 

8.7 

8.7 

10.0 

8.8 
9.9 
9.5 

14.0 
12.81 

16.0 
13.2 

8.0 

9.0 

8.6' 

10.0 

8.4 

9.5 


10.0 

8.7 
9.4 
6.0 

5.7 
6.6 
5.7 


8.01 

8.3 


10.0 

8.9 

8.0 

10.4 


8.0 

13.1 

9.9 


14.0 

14.3 

16.2 


8.0 

7.6| 


1.0 

2.9 

2.1 

1.0 

4.5 
5.8 

5.6 

1.0 

3.7 

2.7 
3.2 

*2!7 

3.1 

1.0 

3.7 
4.0 

3.8 


1.0 

4.0 
4.2 

1.0 
2.6 
1.6 
2.6 


2.7 


1.0 

1.3 

2.0 

3.0 


2.0 

1.4 

8.8 


2.0 

3.6 


14.0 
16.2 

22.0 

23.0 


24.0 

26.0 


20.0 

21.5 

22.2 


17.0 


22 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Eev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
I per  cent. 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Chicago  Fertilizer  Co.,  The,  Chicago,  Ills.  | 

m 

3011 

3049 

Freetown  • • • 

Found 

0.8 

1.8 

8.2 

2.8 

3215 

Guaranteed  | 

1.6 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3215 

3050 

Hnltnn  

Found 

1.1 

4.1 

8.8 

0.8 

3216 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3216 

3051 

Salem  

Found 

0.4 

0.9 

9.2 

0.8 

3353 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

27.0 

3353 

3052 

Freetown  .... 

Found 

1.0 

33.2 

3409 

Guaranteed 

10.0 

i.o 

3409 

3053 

Salem  | 

Found 1 

....1 

9.4] 

3.8[ 

3412 

Guaranteed 

0.4 



2.6 

8.0 

1.0 

3412 

3054 

Freetown  

Found 

0.3 

2.2 

7.8 

*1.6 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  (The)  St. 

Bernard,  Ohio 

2885 

Guaranteed 

2.8 

1 

1 20.0 

2885 

3055 

Orleans  . . . . | 

[f'ound 1 

2.1| 

,1 

1 



1 

27.8 

2886 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

1.0 

2886 

3056 

Salem  

Found 

14.6 

1.3 

2886 

3057 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

14.2 

2.4 

2887 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2887 

3058 

Salem  

Found 

0.8 

1.6 

10.3 

2.3 

2887 

3059 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

0.7 

1.0 

10.7 

2.4 

2888 

Guaranteed 

3.0 

12.0 

1.0 

2888 

3060 

Madison  .... 

Found 

2.0| 

12. 1| 

2.4 

2888 

3061 

Georgetown. 

Found 

2.6 

11.7 

2.3 

2888 

3062 

Tiiberty  

Found 

2.6 

11.9 

2.4 

Capital  Citv  Super  Pho5?phate 

2889 

Guaranteed 

12.0 

1.0 

Capital  Citv  Super  Phosphate 

2889 

3063 

Salem  

Found 

11.0 

2.6 

Capitol  Muriate  of  Potash 

3322 

Guaranteed 

60.0 

Capitol  Muriate  of  Potash 

3322 

3064 

Madison  

Found 

60.2 

Capitol  Muriate  of  Potash 

3322 

3065 

Tjiberty  

Found 

51.8 

Capitol  Muriate  of  Potash 

3322 

3066 

Milltown  . . . . 

Found 

48.1 

Capitol  Tobacco  Pood 

3224 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Capitol  Tobacco  Food 

3224 

3067 

Salem  

Found 

0.8 

4.5 

6.6 

2.5 

Capitol  Tobacco  Food 

3224 

3068 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

0.8 

3.9 

7.7 

3.1 

Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co.,  The  Cincinnati, 

Ohio. 

Capitol  Alkaline  Rone 

8434 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Capitol  Alkaline  Rone 

3434 

3069 

Madison  

Found 

1.6 

9.4 

3.3 

Capitol  Alkaline  Rone 

3434 

3070 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

2.0 

10.0 

2.6 

Capitol  Nitrate  of  Soda 

3506 

Guaranteed 

13.5 

Capitol  Nitrate  of  Soda 

3506 

3071 

Salem  

Found 

16.2 

High  Grade  Guano 

3571 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0' 

■ 1.0 

High  Grade  Guano 

3571 

3072 

Salem  

Found 

0.8 

2.4 

9.4 

2.2 

High  Grade  Guano 

3571 

3073 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

1.1 

2.2 

7.8 

3.0 

Tankage  

3625 

Guaranteed 

8.3 

Tankage  ! 

1 3625 

3074 

Salem  

Found 

7.8 

Tankage  

3625 

3075 

Milltown  .... 

Found 

8.7 

Tankage  

3625 

3076 

Liberty  

1 Found 

8.4 

Patron’s  High  Grade  Phosphate 

3626 

Guaranteed 

16.0 

1.0 

Patron’s  High  Grade  Phosphate 

3626 

3077 

Madison  

Found 

14.9 

1.8 

Patron’s  High  Grade  Phosphate 

3626 

3078 

Madison  

Found ' 

15.4 

2.0 

Humus  Phosphate  

3665 

Guaranteed 

0.4 

14.0 

1.0 

Humus  Phosphate  

3665 

3079 

Connersville 

Found 

0.4 

12.5 

1.5 

Humus  Phosphate  

3665 

3080 

Orleans  

Found 

0.5 

12.3 

1.0 

Continental  Fertilizer  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

1 

1 

1 

Bear  High  Grade  Potato  and  Tobacco 

1 

1 

I 

Grower  

3283 

Guaranteed 

1.61  4.0 

1 7.0 

1.0 

Bear  High  Grade  Potato  and  Tobacco 

Grower  

3283 

3081 

Alton  

Found 

1.1 

3.5 

6.4 

1.1 

Bear  Bone  Meal 

3300 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

20.0 

Bear  Bone  Meal 

3300 

3082 

Osgood  

Found 

1.0 

19.4 

Bear  Special  Wheat  Grower 

3328 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Bear  Special  Wheat  Grower 

3328 



1 3083 

Cannelton  . . j 

[Found 1 

0.71 

1.2| 

1 7.5| 

1 1.9 



Bear  Indiana  Special  Corn  Grower 

3426 

IGuaranteed 

1 0.8 

1.0 

I 7.0 

1.0 

Bear  Indiana  Special  Com  Grower 

3426 

1 3084 

Evansville 

Found 1 

0.91 

1 1.4 

1 0.7 

1.6 

Bear  Indiana  Special  Corn  Grower 

3426 

1 3085 

Evansville  . . 

1 Found 1 

0.91  1-2 

I 7.1 

2.1 

23 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol.  1 

in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos-  j 

phoric  Acid 
1 per  cent. 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Continental  Fertilizer  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

3427 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3427 

3086 

Brookville  . . . 

Found 

1.4 

1.7 

10.4 

2.7 

3624 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

4.0 

11.0 

3524 

3087 

Osgond  

Found 1 

1.8 

8.6( 

1 

9.5 

Corya,  J.  W,,  North  Vernon,  Ind. 

3357 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

9.0 

2.0 

3357 

3088 

North  Vernon 

Found 

2.4 

7.1 

7.2 

3358 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3358 

3089 

North  Vernon 

Found 

2.1 

10.2 

0.6 

Currie  Fertilizer  Company,  The, 

Louisville,  Ky. 

2975 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

1.6 

10.0 

2.0 

2975 

3696 

Evansville 

Found 

1.1 

1.6 

10.6 

1.7 

2975 

3091 

Trov  

Found 

1.5 

1.6 

10.6 

2.3 

2975 

3092 

Evansville 

Found 

1.5 

1.9 

10.0 

1.8 

3114 

Guaranteed 

13.5 

3114 

3093 

Evansville 

Found 

16.1 

1.6 

3114 

3094 

Evansville 

Found 

13.2 

2.7 

3116 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2.6 

3116 

3095 

M a gn  et  

Found 

0.9 

1.3 

10.8 

2.1 

3119 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3119 

3096 

Leopold 

Found 

1.6 

2.3 

9.2 

2.4 

Darling  & Company,  Chicago,  Ills. 

Darling’s  Ground  Raw  Bone 

2843 

Guaranteed 

3.3 

21.0 

Darling’s  Ground  Raw  Bone 

2843 

3097 

Orleans  

Found 

3.9 

23.7 

Darling’s  Two  and  Twenty  Bone 

2844 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

18.0 

Darling’s  Two  and  Twenty  Bone 

2844 

3098 

PierceviUe  . . 

Found 

2.3 

17.8 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand 

2847 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand 

2847 

3099 

Osgnnd  

Found 

1.7 

2.3 

7.4 

4.4 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand 

2847 

3100 

Orleans  

Found 

1.7 

2.2 

8.6 

3.6 

Darling’s  Chicago  Brand 

2847 

3101 

Ellettsville  . . 

Found 

1.6 

2.4 

8.9 

3.5 

Darling’s  Vegetable  and  Lawn  Fertilizer. 

2848 

Guaranteed 

3.3 

7.0 

8.0 

Darling’s  Vegetable  and  Lawn  Fertilizer. 

2848 

3102 

Bedford  

Found 

3.3 

7.7 

7.8 

2.6 

Darling’s  Farmer’s  Favorite  Brand 

2849 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

4.0 

8.0 

Darling’s  Farmer’s  Favorite  Brand 

2849 

3103 

Osgood  

Found 

2.4 

( 4.3 

7.4 

6.5 

Darling’s  Farmer’s  Favorite  Brand 

2849 

3104 

PierceviUe 

Found 

2.6 

4.0 

8.1 

4.9 

Darling’s  Farmer’s  Favorite  Brand 

2849 

310.5 

Dale  

Found 

2.3 

4.3 

8.2 

4.0 

Sure  Winner  Brand 

3280 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

Sure  Winner  Brand 

3280 

3106 

Gsgnod  

Found 

1.0 

3.3 

7.7 

1.7 

Sure  Winner  Brand 

3280 

3107 

Brookville 

Found 

1.0 

3.2 

8.6 

1.8 

Pure  Ground  Bone 

3281 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

23.0 

Pure  Ground  Bone 

3281 

3108 

Ellettsville 

Found 

2.7 

26.6 

Pure  Ground  Bone 

3281 

3109 

Osgnnd  

Found 

3.1 

25.6 

Sulphate  of  Potash 

3504 

Guaranteed 

48.0 

Sulphate  of  Potash 

3504 

3110 

Orleans  

Found 

49.3 

D.  & K.  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Wheat  Fertilizer 

3027 

1 Guaranteed 

1.7 

( 1.6 

8.0 

2.2 

Wheat  Fertilizer 

3027 

3111 

Connersville 

[Found  

0.7 

1 1 3 

9.4 

3.2 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash 

3362 

(Guaranteed 

1 0.8 

( 1.1 

7.0 

( 1.0 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Pota.sh 

3362 

3112 

Osj>nnd  

Found 1 

1 0.7| 

1 1.1 

10.0 

6.4 

Di.ssolved  Bone  with  Potash 

3362 

.3113 

Boonville  . . . . 

Found 

0.9 

1.5 

7.7 

6.0 

Di.ssolved  Bone  with  Potash 

3362 

3114 

Connersville  . 

Found 

0.7 

1.2 

9.2 

3.4 

Pure  Ground  Bone  

3363 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

20.0 

Pure  Ground  Bone  

.3303 

.31 1 a 

Connersville  . 

Found 

2.0 

21.7 

Quick  Acting  Com  Grower 

34021 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.6 

9.0 

0.6 

Quick  Acting  Com  Grower 

34021  .3116 

B1  ocher  

Found 

0.8 

0.9 

10.3 

6.0 

Empire  Carbon  Works,  National  Stock 

Yards,  Ills. 

Empire  Raw  Bone  Meal 

2986 

Guaranteed 

3.2 

22.0 

Empire  Raw  Bone  Meal 

2986 

1 3117 

Bloomington 

Found 

3.6 

20.1 

Empire  Guano  Co.,  The,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

( 

Empire  High  Grade  .\cid  Phosphate 

.3.3071 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

2.0 

Empire  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate 

3307 

i .3118 

1 Paoli  

(Found 

13.2 

2.4 

24 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Numbe.' 


SO 


Sample 
Taken  at 


_ c 

QJ  O 
b£> 

O U 

S ^ 


” 0 

2*S  a 


CO 


2 o 

2-«J 


O)  O ^ g 

O 2-< 

CO  ^ 

CP- 


Empire  Guano  Co.,  The,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Empire  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate.... 

Empire  Bone  and  Potash 

Empire  Bone  and  Potash 

Empire  Bone  and  Potash 

Empire  Potash  Mixture 

Empire  Potash  Mixture  

Empire  Climax  Acid  Phosphate 

Empire  Climax  Acid  Phosphate 


Ewing,  Geo. 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 
Ewing’s 


M.,  Greensburg,  Ind. 
Phosphate  and  Potash . . . . . 
Phosphate  and  Potash . . . . . 

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Best  Phosphate  and  Potash. 
Best  Phosphate  and  Potash. 

Potash  Mixture 

Potash  Mixture 

Complete  Fertilizer 

Complete  Fertilizer 


3307 

3309 

3309 

3309 

3507 

3507 

3514 

3514 


3324 

3324 

3324 

3325 
3325 
3498 
3498 
3619 
3619 


3119 


3120 

3121 


3122 

'^23 


Salem  Found 

Guaranteed 

Corydon  . . . . j F ound 

Brcokville  ...  Found. 

Guaranteed 

Rckerty  Found. 

Guaranteed 
Corydon  Found. 


3124 

3125 


3126 

3127 

3128 


Farmers  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind, 

Farmers  Eureka  Phosphate 

Farmers  Eureka  Phosphate 

Farmers  Eureka  Phosphate 

Farmers  Wheat  and  Oats  Special 

Farmers  Wheat  and  Oats  Special...., 

Farmers  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Farmers  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Farmers  Half  and  Half 

Farmers  Half  and  Half j 

Farmers  Half  and  Half 

Farmers  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Farmers  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Farmers  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Farmers  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Electric  Guano 

Electric  Guano 

Electric  Guano 

Farmers  Harvest  King 

Farmers  Harvest  King 

Farmers  Harvest  King 

Our  Universal  Phosphate 

Our  Universal  Phosphate 

Our  Universal  Phosphate 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Our  German  Phosphate 

Our  German  Phosphate 

Our  German  Phosphate 


3129 

3130 


3131 


3132 


Fox  Chemical  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 
Fox  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower... 
Fox  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower.... 

Fox  Wheat  and  Com  Grower 

Fox  Alkaline  Bone 

Fox  Alkaline  Bone 

Fox  Alkaline  Bone 

Fox  Acid  Phosphate 

Fox  Acid  Phosphate 

Fox  Acid  Phosphate 

A.  A.  Acid  Phosphate 

A.  A.  Acid  Phosphate 

A.  A.  Acid  Phosphate  

Fox  Bone  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone  and  Potash 

Fox  Grain  Special 

Fox  Grain  Special 

Fox  Grain  Specia 


3135 

3136 

3137 


3198 
3198 

3198 

3199 

3199 

3200 
3200 
3204 1 
32041  3133 

3204  3134 

3205 
3205 
3205 
3205 
3315 
3315  3138 
33151  3139 
3393 
33931  3140 
33931  3141 
35551 
35551  3142 
35551  3143 

3556 

35561  3144 
3556 1 3145 

3557 
3557 
3557 


3146 

3147 


Greensburg 

Burney 


Greensburg 


Greensburg 

Greensburg 


Holton  . . . 
Corydon  June 


Eckerty 


2.0 

1.8 

2.0 

4.0 

4.4 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


0.8| 

0.91 


2.0 

3.0 

2.2 

2.0 

2.7 

4.0 
4.3 

1.01 

1.4| 


13.6 
10.0 
10.1 

10.7 

10.0 

8.3 

16.0 

13.9 


10.0] 

10.7 

10.3 

12.0 

13.1 

10.0 

10.9 

7.0| 

5.71 


Guaranteed 

Found 1 

Found 

Guaranteed  | 

....  [Found I 

[Guaranteed  I 

Brookville  . . | Found 

I Guaranteed  | 

Eckerty  1 Found | 

Canaan  [Found | 

[Guaranteed  | 

English  [Found [ 

Eckerty  [Found [ 

Osgood  [Found [ 

[Guaranteed 

LaFayette  . . . | Found 

Corydon  June  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Brookville  . . [ Found 

Corydon  June  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Eckerty  [Found 

Corydon  June  [Found 

Guaranteed  | 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 


2.0 

1.9|. 

2.0[ 

2.4[ 

2.3|. 

2.5[ 

2.4 


2.01 

2.0j 


10. 0[. 
10.41 
11.1 
14. 0|. 
15. 3[ 
10.0] . 
9.4| 

8.5] 
9.4( 

9.6] 

|. 


Orleans 

Eckerty 


Orleans 

Eckerty 


3148 

3149 


2729 
2729 
2729 
2731 
2731 1 3150 

2731]  3151 

2732] ..:... 
2732]  3152 
2732]  3153 

27331 

27.331  3154 
27331  3155 
2734] 

27.341  3156 

3111] 

3111]  3157 
31111  3158 


Guaranteed 

Mitchell  Found 

Indian  Springs[Found 

Guaranteed 

Paoli  Found 

French  Lick.  Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

[Guaranteed 

Vlton  [Found 

[Guaranteed 

Paoli  [Found 

Indian  Springsj  Found 


Paoli  . 
French 


Lick. 


Paoli  . 
French 


Lick. 


1.1 

0.9 

1.1 

0.8 

0.7 

0.5 

0.8 

0.7| 

0.9] 

0.8] 

0.6] 

0.9] 

I 

I 

1.6] 

1.5] 

1.7 


4.0 

3.0 
3.4| 

5.0] 
4.9] 
4.6] 

1.0] 
1.0] 
1.5] 
2.0] 
1.8] 
2.4] 
3.0[ 

1.7 

3.7 


2.0 

2.31 

2.0] 

2.0] 

1.8] 

1.8] 


2.9 

2.0 

1.2 

2.1 

2.0 

6.4 

1.0 

2.1 


0.6 

1.3 


0.1 

2.0 

0.2 


2.4 


1.8] 


3.2 
6.0 
8.1 

7.3 


10.0 

11.2 

11.1 

8.5, 

9.2 

10.1] 

7.01 

8.1] 

10.3] 

8.0] 

10.01 

8.8] 

8.0] 

10.7] 

8.7] 


10. 0[. 
11.1] 
11.5] 
10. 0[. 

11.7] 
9.0j 

14. 0[. 
14.21 
12.1] 
10. 0[. 

12.7] 

11.1] 


1.5 
0.7 

2.5 

4.6 

3.2 
1.0 
3.5 
1.8 
1.0 

4.3 
3.2 
1.0 
4.4] 

3.4 


0.8 

0.7 


1.4 

0.8 


1.0 

0.6 


1.01 

9.0[. 

I 1.2] 

8.5[ 

”6!8 

0.4 

1 1.5] 

9.0] 

1.0 

0.5 

[ 1.6] 

9.0] 

1.1 

0.4 

1 1.6| 

9.2j 

0.5 

22.0 


28.9 

28.6 


per  cent. 


25 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


Number 


LABEL 


Sample 
Taken  at 


(3  a; 
0)  o 
bC 


S 

^ ss  ® 

o 2<! 


. 'H 

g’o 

"rt  o 

.2  0. 


Fox  Chemical  Co.,  Branch  Federal  Chemical 
Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Fox  Raw  Bone 

Fox  Raw  Bone 

Fox  Formula 

Fox  Formula 

Fox  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Fox  Bone,  Blood  and  Potash 

Fox  Wheat  and  Grain  Special I 

Fox  Wheat  and  Grain  Special 


3345 

3345 

3370 

3370 

3494 

3494 

3494 

3573 

3573 

3573 

3575 

3575 


3159 


3160 


3161 

3162 


3163 

3164 


3165 


Heltonville 
Indian  Springs 


Paoli 

Osgood 


Paoli  

Morgantown 


Heltonville  . . 


Guaranteed  .3.2 

Found 3.2 

Guaranteed  0.7 

Found 0.8 

Guaranteed  

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed  0.3 

Found 0.5 

Found 0.5 

Guaranteed  0.8 
Found 0.8 


3.5 

2.6 

4.0 
3.8 

4.1 


11.0 

12.3  0.5 

10.0 

10.5  0.8 

9.4  0.6 


20.0 

22.8 


1.0  11.0  2.0 

1.3  11.2  1.0 

1.0  11.1  0.4 

1.0  12.0  2.0 

1.2  12.5  0.6 


Globe  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Acorn  Acid  Phosphate 

Acorn  Acid  Phosphate 

Acorn  Acid  Phosphate 

Globe  Acid  Phosphate 

Globe  Acid  Phosphate 

Globe  Acid  Phosphate 

Globe  Acid  Phosphate 

Big  4 Phosphate 

Big  4 Phosphate 

Big  4 Phosphate 

Globe  Bone  Dust 

Globe  Bone  Dust 

Globe  Bone  Dust 

Globe  Bone  and  Potash 

Globe  Bone  and  Potash 

Globe  Bone  and  Potash 

Globe  Bone  and  Potash 

Globe  Wheat  Grower 

Globe  Wheat  Grower , 

Progress  Wheat  and  Com  Grower. 

Progress  W’heat  and  Corn  Grower. 

Progress  W’heat  and  Corn  Grower. 

Progress  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower. 

Eagle  Com  and  Wheat  Grower 

Eagle  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower., 
Eagle  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower.. 

Globe  Grain  Grower 

Globe  Grain  Grower 

Globe  Grain  Grower 

Acorn  Bone  Meal 

Acorn  Bone  Meal 

Globe  Bone  Meal 

Globe  Bone  Meal 

Globe  Bone  Meal 

Golden  Harvest  Bone  Meal 

Golden  Harvest  Bone  Meal 

Glebe  Fertilizer  Co.,  Branch  Federal 
Chemical  Co.,  Louisville, 

Potash  Special 

Potash  Special 

Potash  Special 

Braden  Formula  

Braden  Formula  

Braden  Formula  

Globe  Soluble  Vegetable  Manure... 
Globe  Soluble  Vegetable  Manure... 
Globe  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash. 
Globe  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash. 
G’obe  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash. 

Wheat  and  Grain  Special 

Wheat  and  Grain  Special  

Globe  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate. 
Globe  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate. 


3166 

3167 


3168 

3169 

3170 


3171 

3172 


3173 

3174 


3178 


3179 

3180 

3181 


Ky. 


2719 
2719 

2719 

2720 
2720 
2720 

2720 

2721 
2721 
2721 
2723 
2723 

2723 

2724 
27241  3175 
27241  3176 
27241  3177 

2725 

2725 

2726 
2726 
2726 

2726 

2727 
2727  3182 
27271  3183 

31091 

3109|  3184 
31091  3185 

31101 

.31101  3186 

31681 

31681  3187 
.31681  3188 

.317.31 

31731  3189 

I 

I 

I 

33661 

.3.3661  3190 
33661  3191 
3.369 
3.369 
.3360 
3407 
.3407 
3.577 
.3.577 
.3.577 
.3.570 
3570 

.36081 

36081  3108 


3102 

310.3 


.3104 


3105 

3106 


.3107 


Corydon 

Corydon 


.Jasper  

Peoria  

Morgantown 


Corydon 

Depauw 


Jasper 

Centerville 


Corydon  June 
Centerville  . . 
Morgantown 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found I 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed  | 

Corydon  ] Found j 

Guaranteed  | 

Found 

Found I 

Guaranteed  j 
Found I 


Morgantown 


Corydon  June 
New  Albany.. 
Centerville  . . 


Corydon  . . . 
Morgantown 


Tell  City. . . . 
Spencer  


Lawrenceb’rg 
Depauw  


Magnet 


Guaranteed 

Corydon  .Tunc  Found 

Morgantown  Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

iGuaranteed 
Tjibertv  IFonnd 


Milford  . . . 
Martinsville 

Corydon  . . 


Corydon 

Borden 


Morgantown 


0.8| 
0.9| 
1.2 
0.3 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 1 
1.6 
1.6 
1.6 

1.5 

1.6 
1.8 
1.6 

1.4 

1.5 
0.41 
0.51 
0.81 
2.4| 
2.81 
3.2| 
3.5| 
3.8| 
2.4| 
2.2| 


1.0 

0.6 

1.0 

1.0 

1.5 

1.1 

1.0 

1.11 

1.2| 

1.2| 

2.01 

2.01 

1.01 
1.2| 
l.ll 

1.1 
2.0 
2.0 
2.1 
1.51 
1.8| 
l.ll 


10.0 

8.8 

10.5 

14.0 

13.7 
14.11 

14.11 
8.0| 
8.8 
8.2 
9.0 
9.2 

10.51 

11.0 
lo.el 
11. 5j 

11.11 
10.01 
10.01 

9.0| 
10.41 
10.2 
10. 2| 
8.0| 
9.9 
8.5 

9.0 

8.0 

10.7 


.1  10.0 
,|  12.11 
I I 

I I 


2.0| 

1.71 

1.81 

3.5 

2.3 

2.4 

5.0 
5.2 

4.0 

3.1 

3.4 

1.0 

1.2 


10. 0|. 
9.5| 
10.21 
11.0). 
11.21 
12.0) 
8.0| 
8.9! 
10.0) 
8.9| 
10.1 
12. 0| 
12.31 
16.0). 
16.1 


2.3 

0.9 


1.6 

0.4 

0.7 


0.6 

0.6 


2.2 

1.2 


2.0 

0.5 

0.6 


2.1 


1.1 

1.4 

1.4 


1.6). 

1.6 

1.0 

1. 

0.7 


1.0  , 

4.0  . 


0.6 

0.5 


1.3 

0.9 

2.0 

0.9 

2.0 

0.8 

1.0 

2.0 

0.6 


22.7 

26.8 
20.0 
18.5 
20.8 


0.2 


per  cent. 


26 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Hardy  Packing  Co.,  The  Chicago,  Ills. 
Hardy’s  Tobacco  and  Potato  Special.... 
Hardy’s  Tobbacco  and  Potato  Special. . . . 

Hardy’s  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Hardy’s  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Hardy’s  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Hardy’s  No.  1 Crop  Producer 

Hardy’s  No.  1 Crop  Producer 

Hess  & Bro.,  S.  M.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keystone  Bone  Phosphate  

Keystone  Bone  Phosphate 

Keystone  Bone  Phosphate 

Wheat  and  Grass  Manure 

Wheat  and  Grass  Manure 

Ammoniated  Bone  Superphosphate 

Ammoniated  Bone  Superphosphate 

Acid  Phosphate  

Acid  Phosphate  

Hopkins  & Co.,  A New  Albany,  Ind. 

Hopkins  Old  Times  Bone  and  Potash. . 

Hopkins  Old  Times  Bone  and  Potash 

Hopkins  Old  Times  Bone  and  Potash 

Hopkins  Fertilizer  Co.,  New  Albany,  Ind. 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Muriate  of  Potash  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Special  Crop 

Grower’’  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Special  Crop 

Grower’’  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Special  Crop 

Grower’’  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Bone  Meal” 

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Bone  Meal” 

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Wheat  and  Corn 

Grower”  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Wheat  and  Com 

Grower”  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Wheat  and  Cora 

Grower”  

Hopkins  “Old  Times  Pure  Raw  Bone”.. 
Hopkins  “Old  Time  Pure  Raw  Bone”..| 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Pure  Raw  Bone”.. 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Half  and  Half”.. 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Half  and  Half”.. 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Half  and  Half”.. 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Fine  Ground  Bone” 
Hopkins  “Old  Times  Fine  Ground  Bone” 

Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co.,  L.  W., 
Francesville,  Ind. 

Hubbell’ s Corn  and  Clover  Grower 

Hubbell ’s  Corn  and  Clover  Grower 

Hubbell’s  Special  Corn  Grower 

Hubbell’s  Special  Corn  Grower 

Kainit  

Kainit  

Muriate  of  Potash 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Indianapolis  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Bone  and  Blood  with  Potash 

Bone  and  Blood  with  Potash 

Indianapolis  Rendering  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

Banner  Bone 

Banner  Rone 

Banner  Bone 


Number 


Sample 
Taken  at 


S ^ 


a Oh 


3219 

3221 

3221 

3221 

3222 
3222 


2991 

2991 


3170 

3170 

3535 

3535 


3133 

3133 

3133 


3330 

3374 

3374 

3374 

3428 

3428 

3429 
3429 

3429 

3430 
3430 
3430 
3433 
3433 
3433 


3199 


Marysville 


3200 

3201 


Campbellsburg 
Vevay  


Knightstown 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


3203 

3204 


Schnellville 
Milroy  


3205 


Brookville 


3206 


Brookville 


3207 


Schnellville 


3209 


Corydon  

New  Albany. . 


3210 


Corydon  


3211 

3212 
*3^3 


New  Albany. . 
New  Albany. . 
Marysville  . . . 


3214 

3215 


New  Albany. . 
New  Albany. . 


3216 

3217 


New  Albany. . 
Campbellsburg 


3219 

3220 


New  Albany. . 
Salem  


3221 


Corydon 


3627 

3627 

3628  . 
3628 
3641 

3641 

3642 
3642 


3222 


Francesville 


3223 


3224 


3225 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Francesville  ..[Found 


Wolcott 


Francesville 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Foimd 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 


Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 
Found 


Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 
Found 


Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


3395 

3395 


3258 

3258 

3258 


3226 


Batesville 


I I I 

[Guaranteed  1.1 
. Found 0.4 


3227 

3228 


[Guaranteed 

Sunman  [Found 

Salem  [Found 


2.4[ 

2.1 

1.7 


4.0 

3.5 

2.5 
2.2 
3.3 

1.0 
0.8 


1.0 

1.1 

1.0 

2.0 

2.1 

2.0 

2.0 


50.0 

47.2 

6.0 

5.5 

4.5 


2.0 

1.9 


8.0 

8.8 

8.0 

7.9 

8.5 

7.0 

7.1 


8.0 

7.3 

8.1 

8.0 

8.0 

8.0 

7.9 

12.0 

12.6 


5 

4.7 

5 


8.5 

7.3 


8.5 


2.1  6.7  4.1 


2.0  6.0 

2.l|  4.5 

1.8[  4.7 


I 

4.0|  10.0 
4.3[  11.3 
6.0[  8.0[ 
9.9 

12.0 
12.6 
50.0 
47.6 


0.8[ 

0.8 


7.0 

9.7 


1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

2.0 

1.4 

1.0 

2.8 


2.0 

1.6 

3.2 
1.0 
3.1 
1.0 
2.5 
2.0 

2.3 


3.4 

3.3 


3.1 


6.0 

7.2 

7.1 


0.5 


0.7 

4.7 


17.0 

15.9 


21.5 

21.0 

20.6 


28.0 

27.1 


25.0 

28.8 

29.9 


27 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

' 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  Bol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 

Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
per  cent. 

3 

*3 

i 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Indianapolis  Rendering  Co.,  Indianapolis, 

Ind.  1 

1 

Half  and  Half 

3259 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

8.0 

6.0 

Half  and  Half 

.32.59 

3229 

rinrydon  

Found 

1.6 

9.6 

6.1 

Half  and  Half 

3259 

3230 

Sunman 

Found 

1.9 

9.2 

6.9 

3263 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

3263 

3231 

Norris  

Found 

1.7 

10.3 

2.5 

3263 

3232 

Corydon  

Foimd 

1.5 

11.4 

1.4 

3264 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

3264 

3233 

Salem  

Found 

13.8 

1.8 

3265 

Guaranteed 

10.0 

3265 

3234 

Leipsic  

Found 

8.3 

2.7 

3361 

Guaranteed 

4.0 

10.0 

3361 

3235 

Cory d on  

Found 

1.4 

11.1 

0.6 

3561 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3561 

3236 

Norris  

Foun<3 

0.7 

1.3 

8.9 

3.9 

3561 

3237 

Salpm  

Found 

1.2 

3.2 

8.5 

4.4 

3561 

3238 

Delaware  

Found 

0.8 

1.2 

7.6 

2.8 

3562 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3562 

3239 

Norris  

Found 

0.7 

1.9 

9.2 

2.9 

3562 

.3240 

Salem  

Found 

1.0 

1.8 

10.1 

3.0 

3563 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3563 

. . . 
3241 

Norris  

Found 

0.7 

2.6 

9.5 

2.9 

3563 

3242 

Corydon  

Found 

0.6 

2.6 

10.6 

2.0 

Jarecki  Chemical  Co.,  The,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

2913 

Guaranteed 

3.0 

12.0 

1.0 

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash 

2913 

3243 

Orleans  

Found 

2.0 

12.7 

2.2 

2913 

3244 

Franklin  .... 

Found 

2.3 

11.6 

2.9 

0.  R.  Fertilizer  

2915 

Guaranteed 

0.4 

0.5 

5.0 

1.0 

0.  K.  Fertilizer 

2915 

3245 

St.  Paul  .... 

Found 

0.7 

1.0 

5.9 

1.9 

Dissolved  Bone  Black  Wheat  Special.... 

2916 

Guaranteed 

15.0 

1.0 

Dissolved  Bone  Black  Wheat  Special.... 

2916 

3246 

Mineral  City. 

Found 

15.4 

1.5 

St.  Bernard  Phosphate 

2917 

Guaranteed 

12.0 

1.0 

St.  Bernard  Phosphate 

2917 

3247 

Mineral  City. 
1 

Found 

12.0 

3.1 

C.  0.  D.  Phosphate 

2918 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

1.0 

C.  0.  D.  Phosphate 

2918 

3248 

St.  Anthony. . 

Found 

14.6 

2.0 

Fish  and  Potash  Grain  Special 

2919 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

2.0 

9.0 

1.0 

Fish  and  Potash  Grain  Special 

2919 

3249 

Mineral  City. 

Pound 

1.3 

2.2 

7.7 

3.3 

No.  One,  Fish  Guano 

2920 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

No.  One,  Fish  Guano 

2920 

3250 

B1  ocher  

|Foiind 

1.0 

1.4 

9.7 

2.4 

No.  One,  Fish  Guano 

2920 

3251 

Mineral  City. 

|Found 

0.8 

1.0 

9.7 

2.6 

Square  Brand  Phosphate  and  Potash.... 

3458 

(Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Square  Brand  Phosphate  and  Potash.... 

3458 

3252 

Blocher  

(Found 

1.7 

8.9 

3.2 

Square  Brand  Phosphate  and  Potash.... 

34.58 

325.3 

Franklin  .... 

(Found 

2.4 

9.5 

3.5 

Lake  Erie  Guano  

3475 

(Guaranteed 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Lake  Erie  Guano  

3475 

.3254 

Siinman  

(Found 

0.6 

1.9 

9.9 

2.1 

Lake  Erie  Guano  

3475 

3255 

Franklin  

Found 

1.0 

2.2 

7.5 

3.2 

Johnson  D.  B.,  Mooreswille,  Ind. 

D.  B.  Johnson’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phos- 

i 

( 

phate  

3350 

(Guaranteed 

( 

14.0 

( 

D.  B.  Johnson’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phos- 

[ 

phate  

3350 

3256 

Valparaiso 

(Found .... 

11.2 

( 3.7 

D.  B.  .Johnson’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phos- 

( 

phate  

3350 

.3257 

Mooresville  . . 

(Found 

14.4 

1 1.2 

Jones  Fertilizing  Co.,  The  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

1 

i 

“.Tones”  ifiami  Valley  Phosphate 

3289 

(Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

“Jones”  Miami  Valley  Phosphate 

3289 

.3258 

Vevay  

[Found 

1 .6 

2.0 

9.6 

1 1.5 

High  Grade  Dissolved  Bono 

3347 

(Guaranteed 

14.0 

( 1 .0 

High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone 

3347 

32.59 

Brookville  ... 

[Found 

14.4 

( 1 .2 

High  Grade  Di.s.solved  Bone 

3347 

.3260 

Marengo  

(Found 

13.0 

[ 1 .4 

Potash  Mixture  

.3348 

(Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

( 1 .0 

Potash  Mixture  

3348 

3261 

Brookville  . . . 

(Found 

1 .7 

11.0! 

2.3 

Jones  Fertilizing  Co.,  The  Louisvile,  Ky  . 

( 

[ 

1 

( 

I 

.Tones  Com  and  Wheat  Grower 

3565 

(Guaranteed 

( 0.8 

1 nl  76 

( 1 .0 

.Tones  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

.3565 

3262 

Brookville  . . . 

(Found 

T .0 

0.9| 

( 6.81 

[ 2.7' 

.Tones  Com  and  Wheat  Grower 

3565 

1 .3263 

Mill  hausen 

(Found 

] .1 

1.4 

( 8.51 

1 1.7| 

.Tones  Com  and  Wheat  Grower 

.3565 

I 3264 

Marengo  

(Found 

1.3 

1 1 .0 

[ 7.6 

( 1 .9 

1 

Indiana  .Tones  Reliable 

3.567 

1 

|Ou3rflntood 

0.8 

1 1 R 

Q n 

1 1,0 

1 

Indiana  Jones  Reliable  

3567 

1 3265 

Brookville  . . . 

(Found 

l!l 

i i!.3(  9.'o 

[ 2.9 

1 

28 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol.  1 

in  water  I 

per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 

per  cent.  ‘ 

Ollicial 

Inspec- 
tion B 

J.  B.  Jones,  Louisville,  Ky. 

3654 

Guaranteed 

1.7 

2.0 

9.0 

2.0 

3654 

3266 

Watson  

Found 

1.7 

1.6 

6.2 

2.7 

Jones  Robin,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Ground  Phosphate  Rock  

3551 

Guaranteed 

28.0 

3551 

3267 

Paoli  

Found 

30.6 

Kaufman  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

3068 

Guaranteed 

2.2 

25.8 

Pure  Bone  

3068 

3268 

Marengo  

Found 

3.1 

25.3 

Half  and  Half 

3070 

Guaranteed 

1.7 

9.2 

3.5 

Half  and  Half 

3070 

3269 

Shoals  

Found 

0.5 

8.2 

1.1 

Half  and  Half 

3070 

3270 

Brookville  . . . 

Fonnd 

0.6 

7.2 

0.8 

3071 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

8.7 

1.2 

3071 

3271 

Shoals  

Found 

0.3 

0.4 

8.3 

1.1 

3071 

3272 

Brookville 

Found 

0.5 

0.1 

8.8 

0.8 

3073 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 



3073 

3273 

Leipsic  

Found 

0.8 

0.9 

7.1 

1.5 

3273 

3274 

Bloomington 

Found 

0.3 

0.3 

7.8 

1.6 

3074 

Guaranteed 

2.0| 

10.0 

3074 

3275 

Brookville  . . . 

Found 

0.4 

1 8.7 

1.1 

3255 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

3255 

3276 

Leipsic  

Found 

0.8 

1.8 

7.1 

1.6 

3256 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

3256 

3277 

Tjeipsic  

Found 

0.9 

2.3 

7.3 

1.6 

3256 

3278 

Shoals  

Found 

0.4 

0.5 

8.5 

1.3 

3256 

3279 

Bloomington 

Found 

0.6 

0.4 

6.7 

0.9 

Tobacco  and  Potato  Fertilizer 

3257 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

4.0 

9.0 

1.0 

Tobacco  and  Potato  Fertilizer 

3257 

3280 

New  Albany. . 

Found 

1.8 

. 3.2 

8.8 

1.6 

Pure  Acid  Phosphate 

3438 

Guaranteed 

16.0 

Pure  Acid  Phosphate  ... 

3438 

3281 

New  Albany. . 

Found 

15.1 

1.3 

Wheat  Fertilizer  

3532 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

Wheat  Fertilizer  

3532 

3282 

'Trafalgar  

Found 

0.4 

0.4 

9.2 

1.5 

Kaufman  T X.  Tj.  Phosphate 

3645 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

Kaufman  T.  X Ti  Phosphate 

3645 

1 3283 

Brookville  . . . 

Found 

10.6 

1.1 

Lister  Joseph,  Chicago,  Ills. 

1 

1 

Pure  Bone  Meal 

3141 

Guaranteed 

2.5 

25.0 

Pure  Bone  Meal 

3141 

3284 

Bloomington 

Found 

2.4 

26.3 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Bone  Ateal . . 

2785 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

3.0 

17.0 

Bone  Meal 

2785 

3285 

Batesville 

Found 

1.2 

7.0 

12.5 

Bone  Afeal 

2785 

3286 

Columbus 

Found 

1.2 

7.2 

[ 12.0 

Special  Wheat.  Grower 

2786 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

[ 1.0 

Special  Wheat  Grower 

2786 

3287 

Manchester  . . 

Found 

0.8 

0.9 

6.4 

1 3.3 

Special  W'heat.  Grower 

2786 

3288 

Farabee  

Found 

0.8 

1.0 

[ 7.9 

[ 0.7 

Soluble  Bone  

2788 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.5 

[ 8.0 

[ 1.0 

Soluble  Bone  

2788 

3289 

Vevay  

Found 

0.7 

1.3 

I 8.4 

[ 0.6 

Soluble  Bone 

2788 

3290 

Farabee  

[Found 

0.8 

[ 1.3 

[ 8.4 

0.4 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

2789 

[Guaranteed 

0.1 

[ 0.5 

[ 10.0 

1.0 

(’'‘nm  qtiH  WVipaf  rimriTPr 

2789 

3291 

Batesville 

[Found 

0.2 

1 0.4 

[ 10.0 

0.5 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

2789 

3292 

Columbus 

1 Found 

0.2 

[ 0.3 

[ 9.5 

0.8 

E&prl©  Tndi&ns,  Tlijjh  Grsd6  Dissolv6d  Boti6 

3340 

1 

[Guaranteed 

[ 14.0 

1.0 

TT'oo'Ip  TrirliiinQ  TTicrVi  Oiccrklvprl  Ratip 

3340 

3293 

! Manchester  .. 

[Found 

[ 13.1 

1.2 

^ Jiiiiictiict  111^11  AjriaiiC  VcLl  lJUIlv:; 

V.iiprlp  TnHinnii  PnfaQh  MWfnrp 

3341 

[Guaranteed 

1 2.6 

[ 10.0 

1.0 

P.Qplp  PnfocVi  \fiYfiirp 

3341 

3294 

Golumbus 

[Found 

1 1.7 

[ 10.8 

0.5 

"Roplo  TnHioTi'a  Pnfoch  ATiYfnrp 

3341 

3295 

Batesville  

[Found 

1.8 

[ 10.3 

0.6 

Facie  Gnano  

3423 

[Guaranteed 

1.6 

1 2.0 

I 10.0 

1 1.0 

Facie  Gnano  . . . 

3423 

3296 

Columbus 

Found 

[ 1.5 

[ 2.0 

[ 10.2 

I 1.7 

1 

"VT  rimiiTifl  PnnA 

3523 

[Guaranteed' 

1 1.2 

[ 4.0 

[ 11.0 

[ 

XX  Ground  Bone  

3523 

3297 

Vevav  

IFound 

1.3 

1 

[ 9.1 

[ 10.7 

1 

Fade  Indiana  Phosphate 

3564 

[ 12.0 

[ 1.0 

1 

TriHvana  PVmcpV»*ifp 

3564 

1 

1 3298 

1 

Farabee  

[Found 

[.... 

i 

[ 10.7 

[ 1.8 

[ 

Madison  Fertilizer  and  Glue  Works, 

1 

1 

[ 

1 

[ 

! 

[ 

1 

[ 

1 

1 

1 

Madison,  Ind. 

1 

1 

[ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

A^’allev  Citv  Corn  Grower 

1 29291 

IGuaranteed  1 2.0 

1 1.0 

[ 8.0 

1 3.5 

1 

I 0000 1 OOQO 

Aladison  

I 1 9 

[ 1 .8 

[ 7.7 

[ 7.6 

[ 

Vallpy  Gity  C*orn  Grower 

Valiev  Citv  AVheat  Grower 

I 3151 1 

IGuaranteed  [ 2.0 

1 1.0 

[ 8.0 

[ 3.5 

1 

Valiev  City  Wheat  Grower 

1 31511  3300 

Afadison  

IFound 

[ 1.1[  1.0[  6.9 

[ 6.4 

1 

29 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 


Mathiason  Mfg.  Co.,  P.  B.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Increscent  Brand  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Increscent  Brand  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Increscent  Brand  Acidulated  Bone  and 
Potash  

. Increscent  Brand  Acidulated  Bone  and 
Potash  

Mayer  M’f’g.  Co.,  A.  B.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Anchor  Brand  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Anchor  Brand  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Anchor  Brand  Pure  Bone  Meal 

Anchor  Brand  St.  Louis  Bone  Meal.... 
Anchor  Brand  St.  Louis  Bone  Meal.... 
Anchor  Brand  Com  and  Wheat  Grower.. 
Anchor  Brand  Corn  and  ^Vheat  Grower.. 

Mendenhall  & Spillman,  Greensburg,  Ind. 

M.  & S.  Decatur  County  Special 

M.  & S.  Decatur  County  Special 

Mertz,  Thomas,  Richmond,  Ind. 

Common  Sense  Bone  Sleal 

Common  Sense  Bone  Meal 

Michigan  Carbon  Works,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Desiccated  Bone  

Desiccated  Bone  

Homestead  A.  B.  B.  Fertilizer 

Homestead  A.  B.  B.  Fertilizer 

Homestead  A.  B.  B.  Fertilizer 

Homestead  A.  B.  B.  Fertilizer 

Red  Line  Complete  Manure 

Red  Line  Complete  Manure 

Red  Line  Complete  Manure 

Red  Line  Crop  Grower 

Red  Line  Crow  Grower 

Red  Line  Phosphate 

Red  Line  Phosphate 

Red  Line  Phosphate 

Wolverine  Phosphate  

Wolverine  Phosphate  

Red  Line  Phosphate  with  Potash 

Red  Line  Phosphate  with  Potash 

Red  Line  Phosphate  with  Potash 

Wolverine  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Wolverine  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Wolverine  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Homestead  Potato  and  Tobacco  Special 
Homestead  Potato  and  Tobacco  Special 

Morris  & Co.,  Nel.son,  Chicago,  Bis. 

Big  One  

Big  One  

Big  Two  

Big  Two  

Big  Two  

Big  Thr^e  

Bier  Three  

Big  Four  

Biff  Four  

Biff  Five  

Biff  Five  | 

Biff  Five  

Biff  Six  Special  Bone  Meal 

Biff  Six  Special  Bone  Meal '.  ..| 

Biff  Six  Special  Bone  Meal | 

Biff  Six  Special  Rone  Meal 

Biff  Seven  Hiph  Grade  Acid  Phosphate..] 
Biff  Seven  Hieh  Grade  Acid  Phosphate..! 
Big  Seven  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate] 


Number 


I CQ 

h 

fl  -5 


Sample 
Taken  at 


(h  <V 

O)  o 
be 

O Ui 
^ 0) 
.•s  ^ 
12; 


i.as. 


cu  ,2 

'bi 

o 

.o  a 


3046 

3046 

3051 

3051 


2779 

2779 

2779 

2780 
2780 
2783 
2783 


3301  Taswell 


Guaranteed 
Found 


I 

3302  Taswell 


Guaranteed 
IFoimd 


3303  Tell  City  

3304  i St.  Anthony.. 


3305 


3307 


2937 
2937  3308 

I 


2895 


2898 

2899 

2899 

2900 
2900 

2900 

2901 

2901 

2902 
2902 
2902 
3448 
2448 
3448 
3602 
3602 


3309 


3310 

3311 

3312 


3313 

3314 


3315 


3316 

3317 


3318 


3319 

3320 


3321 

3322 


3323 


St.  Anthony.. 


St.  Anthony. . 


[Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Adams 


Richmond 


Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed  2.5 
Found 2.7 

I 


Bloomington 


New  Albany. . 
Morgantown  . 
Scottsburg  . . 


North  Vernon 
Bloomington 


Georgetown  . 


Marengo  . . . 
Bloomington 


Tell  City. 


North  Vernon 
English 


Vienna  

Huntingburg 


New  Albany. . 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

(Guaranteed 
Found 


2.0  8.0 

2.01  6.2 


4.0 

3.7 


1.5 

1.1 

1.7 

1.9 

1.0 

1.1 

1.2 

2.0 

2.3 


2.0 

1.7 

1.6 


5.0 

4.2 


10.0 

10.1 


8.0 

10.0 

8.0 

10.2 

7.0 

7.1 
6.8 
8.0 
7.3 

14.0 
14.3 
14.6 

10.0 

9.8 

10.0 

8.8 

8.5 


8.0 


2.0 

6.5 


0.2 


20.0 

20.6 


20.0 

24.1 
20.5 
16.0 

22.1 


8.5 

10.0 


25.0 

32.9 


0.5 

4.2 

0.3 

’2!2 

1.5 

'2.2 

lA 

2.0 

’i!s 

’3.6 

3.4 


20.0 

29.3 

27.3 


1.0 

0.7 


3021 

3021 

3022 
3022 
.30221 
.3023! 
30231 

3024 
.3024 

3025 
302.5 
.30251 
3.3031 
.3.30.3! 
.3.3031 
.330.3! 


.3.3041 

.3.3041 


3324 

Se3onour  . . . , 

3.325 

3326 

’ *3327 

Salem  

Seymour  

Seymour  

3328 

Salem  

3.329 

33.30 

Salem  

Schnellville  . 

3331 

.3.332 

Richmond  . . 
New  Albany. 

.33.33' Letts 


3334  Seymour  

3.3.35  Sc'hnoBviBe  . 


Guaranteed 

[Found I 

[Guaranteed  | 

[Found j 

I Found ! 

i Guaranteed  ( 

[Found ( 

(Guaranteed  [ 

(Found ( 

[Guaranteed  [ 

Found I 

(Found I 

[Guaranteed  j 

I Found I 

[Found ] 

(Found ( 

(Guaranteed  ( 

I Found ! 

(Found ( 


3.2  

2.8 

2.0 

2.7 

2.2  

2.5[  2.0 

2.5[  1.8 

4.1[  4.0 

4.0(  4.7 

2.5[  l.Oj 
3.2[  1.7[ 

3.4[  1.2 

0.8| 

1.2 

1.0 

1.1  


4.0 

4.2 


7.5 

4.0 

6.61 

5.2 


10.0 

12.9 

10.71 


24.0 
27.4 

28.0 


5.0 

8.4 

5.0 


27.0 

27.4 

26.2 

24.8 


3.7 


per  cent. 


30 


Report  of  Inspections— Continued. 


LABEL 


Morris  & Co.,  Nelson,  Chicago,  Ills. 

Big  Eight  Ammoniated  Acid  Phosphate 

with  Potash  

Big  Eight  Ammoniated  Acid  Phosphate 

with  Potash  

Big  Eight  Ammoniated  Acid  Phosphate 
with  Potash  


Number 


1 McCallum  & Co.,  Jas.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Superior  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Superior  Pure  Groimd  Bone 

Ruby  Phosphate  

Ruby  Phosphate  

Miami  Phosphate  

Miami  Phosphate  

Miami  Phosphate  

Spot  Cash  Fertilizer 

Spot  Cash  Fertilizer 

Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate 

Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate 

Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate 

Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer  

Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer 


National  Fertilizer  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Old  Hickory  Guano 

Old  Hickory  Guano 

Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone 

Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone 

National  Grain  Grower 

National  Grain  Grower 

National  Acid  Phosphate  and  Potash.... 
National  Acid  Phosphate  and  Potash.... 
National  High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone... 
National  High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone... 
National  High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone... 

National  Acid  Phosphate 

National  Acid  Phosphate ’. . . 


Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Rushville,  Ind. 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash. . 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash.. 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash.. 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash.. 

Norris  Bone  and  Potash 

Norris  Bone  and  Potash 

Norris  Bone  and  Potash 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

Norris  Special  Fish  Guano 

Norris  Special  Fish  Guano 

Norris  Special  Fish  Guano 

Norris  X Rush  County  Special 

Norris  X Rush  County  Special 

Norris  Electric  Wheat  Maker 

Norris  Electric  Wheat  Maker 

Norris  Electric  Wheat  Maker 

Norris  Steamed  Bone 

Norris  Steamed  Bone 

Norris  Steamed  Bone 


North  Western  Fertilizing  Co.,  Chicago,  Ills. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Pure  Ground  Bone.. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Pure  Ground  Bone.. 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Fine  Raw  Bone 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Fine  Raw  Bone 


3305 

3305 

3306 


2830 


2831 

2831 

2834 

2834 

2834 

3468 

3468 


3538 

3538 

3581 

3581 

3583 

3583 

3584 

3584 

3585 
3585 

3585 

3586 
3586 


3469 

3469 

3469 

3469 

3470 
3470 

3470 

3471 
3471 
3471 

3471 

3472 

3472 
2472 

3473 

3473 

3474 
3474 
3474 
3632 
3632 
3632 


2857 

2857 


2858 


Sample 
Taken  at 


3337 


3338 


3340 

3341 


3342 


3343 

3344 


3345 


3346 


3347 

*3348 


3349 

’3356 


3352 


3353 

3354 

3355 


3356 

3357 


3358 

3359 

3360 


3361 

3362 


3364 


3366 

3367 


Jasper 

Jasper 


Crandall 


Shoals 


Union  City. 
Crandall 


Shoals 


Leipsic 

Shoals 


Leipsic 


Belleview 


Velpen 
V el  pen 


Belleview 


Belleview 

Birdseye 


Mentor 


Rensselaer 
Bloomington 
RushviUe  . . . 


Bloomington 

Rushville 


Bloomington 

Bloomington 

Rushville 


Bloomington 
Rushville  . . 


Rushville 


Columbus 


Mitchell 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Foimd 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Bloomington 
Rushville  .. 


Bloomington 

Rushville 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Foimd 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 

Guaranteed 

Found 

Found 


Guaranteed 

Found 

Guaranteed 
Found 


aS 

S," 

s V 
.-s  ^ 

;zi 


3 .as. 


2.4 

2.8 

3.2 

3.0 


1.0 

1.4 

1.8 


1.0 

1.3 
1.5 

2.1 
1.9 

2.0 
1.7 

1.0 

1.4 

1.5 

8.0 

8.5 


2.0 
1.5 

1.0 
1.2 

2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.4 


4.0 

3.8 

4.3 
3.6 

2.0 

2.4 

2.9 


2.0 

2.4 

2.4 


2.5 

2.6 
2.1 


m 


10.0 

10.3 

10.3 


12.0 

13.3 
10.0 
10.6 

10.4 

10.0 

11.3 

10.0 

10.3 
10.9 

8.0 

10.2 


8.0 

9.1 

10.0 

11.2 

8.0 

11.0 

10.0 

11.2 

14.0 
14.7 

16.0 
12.0 
14.3 


10.0 

10.8 

11.9 
12.0 
10.0 

10.7 

10.0 

14.0 

16.7 
14.5 

15.9 
8.0 
8.0 
9.4 

16.0 

16.9 
12.0 
14.4 
13.2 


OQ  O 


• s i 

g „ 5 

3 s 


1.0 

3.5 

0.9 


23.0 

21.8 


1.0 

0.3 

1.0 

1.8 

2.0 

2.0 

2.2 

5.0 

7.7 
4.2 

1.0 

2.7 


1.0 

5.6 

1.0 

3.2 
1.0 
2.9 
1.0 

6.3 
1.0 
2.5 
2.1 
1.0 

2.7 


0.6 

0.3 

0.7 

'0.6 

0.9 

'6.5 

0.2 

0.2 

2.0 

5.1 

1.2 

'6.3 

1.0 

0.9 

0.4 


20.0 

20.9 

23.0 


20.0 

22.6 

22.0 

22.2 


1.  Manufactured  and  sold  by  The  Wuichet  Fertilizer  Co.,  Successors  to  Jas.  McCallum  & Co. 


31 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


•M 

Number 

o 

o " 

T3  g C 

"S  Cl 

Sample 

c g 

« p. 

0)  O O' 

*0 

* CQ 

Taken  at 

0)  ^ 
bX) 

JS  u 

-'3 

Oflficia 

Inspei 

tion 

o ^ 
."S  ^ 

J.SS. 

o 

fL, 

m 

LABEL 


Ch  o 

3 O 


1 

j 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

3370 

Sfl  1 em  

Found 

1.7 

2.2 

1 3371 

Velpen  

Found 

1.6 

1.9 

1 3372' 

Bloomington 

Found 

1.6 

2.0 

3373 

Evansville  . . . 

Found 

1.8 

2.2 

1 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

3374 

Milan  

Found 

2.2 

3376 

Columbus  . . . 

Found 

2.0 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

3376 

Evansville  . . 

Found 

1.1 

1.3 

Guaranteed 

3377 

Depauw  

Found 

1 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

1.5 

3378 

Salem  

Found 

2.1 

1.5 

3379 

Campbellsburg 

Found 

2.0 

1.5 

3380 

New  Albany. . 

Found 

2.0 

1.7 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

1.5 

3381 

Columbus  . . . 

Found 

2.2 

1.8 

3382 

Bloomington 

Found 

2.0 

1.7 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

1.5 



1 3383 

1 Mitchell  

Found 

2.1 

1.6 

1 

Guaranteed 

60.0 

1 3384 

Milan  

Found 

61.4 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

' 3386 

1 Milan  

Found 

1.3 

' ^386 

Mitchell  

Found 

1.4 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

6.0 

3387 

Milan  

Found 

2.1 

6.0 

3388 

Gosport  

Found 

1.9 

4.2 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

> 3389 

Washington  . 

Found 

1.1 

r 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

2.0 

7 3390 

Washington  . . 

Found 

0.6 

0.7 

J 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

4.0 

7 3391 

Campbellsburg 

Found 

0.7 

3.4 

r 3392 

jBrooksburg  .. 

Found 

0.7 

3.3 

i 

Guaranteed 

0.4 

2.5 

i 3393 

Washington  . 

Found 

0.3 

2.1 

} 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

5 3394 

Washington  . 

Found 

0.5 

0.6 

1 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

L 3396 

Orleans  

Found 

0.9 

7 

Guaranteed 

T 3396 

Mt.  Carmel  . . 

Pound 

3 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

3 8397 

Washington  . 

Found 

0.9 

1 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

1 3398 

j. Jasper  

Found 

2.6 

1 3399 

Vienna  

Found 

2.4 

2 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

2 3400 

Nulltown  

Found 

0.9 

1.2 

il 

Guaranteed 

4.0 

North  Western  Fertilizing  Co.,  Chicago,  Ills. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Corn  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Com  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Corn  and  Wheat 

Grower  | 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Com  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Corn  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Bone  and  Potash 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Bone  and  Potash 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Bone  and  Potash.... 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Acidulated  Bone  and 

Potash  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Acidulated  Bone  and 

Potash  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Quick  Acting  Phos- 
phate   

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Quick  Acting  Phos- 
phate   

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  National  Bone  Dust. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  National  Bone  Dust. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  National  Bone  Dust. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  National  Bone  Dust. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Garden  City  Super 

Phosphate  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Garden  City^  Super 

Phosphate  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Garden  City  /Super 

Phosphate  

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Challenge  C!om  Grower 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Challenge  Com  Grower 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Mariate  of  Potash 

Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Bone  Meal. . 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Bone  Meal.. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Bone  Meal.. 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Potato  Grower 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Potato  Grower 
Horse  Shoe  Brand,  Special  Potato  Grower 

Ohio  Farmers  Fertilizer  Co.,  Columbus,  0. 

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

Com,  Oats  and  WTieat  Fish  Guano... 
Com,  Oats  and  Wheat  Fish  Guano... 

No.  1 Potato  and  Tobacco  Special... 

No.  1 Potato  and  Tobacco  Special... 

No.  1 Potato  and  Tobacco  Special... 

Wheat  Maker  and  Seeding  Down 

Wheat  Maker  and  Seeding  Down 

“A”  General  Crop  Fish  Guano 

“A”  General  Crop  Fish  Guano 

Paw  Bone  Meal 

Raw  Bone  Meal 

Alkaline  Bone  

Alkaline  Bone  

“A”  Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

“A”  Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 


Packers  Fertilizer  Association,  Chicago,  Ills. 
Boars  Head  Brand,  Chicago  Bone  Meal. 
Boars  Head  Brand,  Chicago  Bone  Meal. 
Boars  Head  Brand,  Chicago  Bone  Meal. 
Boars  Head  Brand,  Ammoniated  Bone 

and  Potash  

Boars  Head  Brand,  Ammoniated  Bone 

and  Potash  

Boars  Head  Brand,  Pota.sh  Phosphate. . . | 


2861 

2861 

2861 


2865 


3323 


2862 


8.0 

7.2 


10.8 

8.3 

10.0 

9.3 

9.6 

10.0 

10.6 

10.0 

9.3 

8.0 

7.3 

9.7 

8.2 

8.0 

8.1 

8,1 

8.0 

7.4 


8.0 

7.1 

10.8 


8.0 

10.5 

8.0 

8.0 

8.0 

9.6 
9.8 
8.0 

9.0 

7.0 

7.6 


14.0 
14.7 

11.0 
10.9 


10.0 


9.9 

10.0 


5.2 

6.2 
1.1 
3.1 


1.4 

4.3 


2.0 


1.6 


5 

3.6 

6.9 


4.2 

6.4 

’6.4 


2.0 

6.0 

3 


1.0 

3.9 

2.0 

2.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
2.1 
1.0 
3.0 


1.0 

2.1 

1.0 

3.7 


25.0 
26.5 

28.1 


27.0 

34.2 


20.0 

22.0 

22.4 


per  cent. 


32 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
* per  cent. 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Packers  Fertilizer  Association,  Chicago,  Ills.  | 

1 

1 

1 

2853 

3401 

Goodland  .... 

Found 

3.3 

9.4 

1.2 

2853 

3402 

•Ta  sppr  

Found 

3.4 

10.5 

1.4 

Boars  Head  Brand,  Sure  Growth  Phos- 

2854 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

10.0 

Boars  Head  Brand,  Sure  Growth  Phos- 

2854 

3403 

.T^Gppr  

|Found 

0.8 

10.5 

3.1 

Boars  Head  Brand,  Sure  Growth  Phos- 

2854 

3404 

■TaGppr 

Found  . . . 

0.9 

8.3 

3.7 

2855 

Guaranteed 

10.0 

2855 

3405 

.Tasppr  

Found 

9.2 

5.6 

2855 

3406 

•Tasppr  

Found 

10.9 

1.6 

Boars  Head  Brand,  World  of  Good 

2856 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

Boars  Head  Brand,  World  of  Good 

2856 

3407 

Scottsburg  . . 

Found 

1 2.1 

1.8 

6.9 

4.7 

Boars  Head  Brand,  World  of  Good 

2856 

3408 

Nulltown  

Found 

2.1 

1.8 

8.2 

3.9 

Boars  Head  Brand,  World  of  Good 

1 

2856 

3409 

^alpTTi  

Found 

2.0 

1.5 

9.1 

6.2 

3277 

G u ar  an  1 6 6 d 

14.0 

3277 

3410 

-Tq«ppr  

Fniind 

12.6 

3.6 

3277 

3411 

Fippan  w 

Found  

14.4 

1.1 

3518 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

25.0 

3518 

3412 

Found 

1 .2 

27.8 

Packers  Fertilizer  Co.,  The  St.  Bernard,  0. 

1 

1 

1 

' 

1 

3238 

Guaran.t66d 

2.0 

10.0 

Hinchraan’s  Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash 

3238 

3413 

Af  1 *1  p 

Found 

1.4 

9.1 

1.4 

Hinchman’s  Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash 

3238 

3414 

rir”|o^nG 

Found 

2.0 

10.5 

3.3 

Hinchman’s  Acidulated  Bone 

3239 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

2.0 

Hinchman’s  Acidulated  Bone 

3239 

3415 

Found 

13.4 

2.7 

Hinrhmfm’s  Swpppstakps  Ronp 

3240 

. . 

OuarantcGd 

0.4 

2.0 

9.0 

1.0 

HinphTnau’s  Swpppstakps  Ronp 

3240 

3416 

Franklin  

Found  .... 

0.9 

2.1 

7.5 

3.5 

Hinrhman’s  Ronp  Phosphatp 

3242 

Guarant  e6  d 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

HinpViman’s  Ronp  Phosphatp 

3242 

3417 

Orlenas  

Found 

0.7 

0.81 

1 10.0 

2.1 

Hinchman’s  Bone  Meal 

3243 

Guaranteed 

2.5 

20.0 

Hinphman’s  Ronp  Mpal 

3243 

3418 

Found 

1.9 

27.3 

Hinrhman’s  Ronp  Mpal 

3243 

3419 

Pan! 

Found 

1.9 

29.3 

Packers  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Swpppstakps  Ronp  

3436 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Swpppstakps  Ronp  

3436 

3420 

Found 

1.0 

2.0 

8.4 

2.2 

Swpppstakps  Ronp  

3436 

3421 

• - 

Orlp^^riG  

Found 

1.1 

2.2 

7.6 

3.5 

Api’Hiilatpd  Ronp  

3490 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

2.0 

Apidnlatpfl  Ronp  

3490 

3422 

ArlAOTlG 

Found 

13.6 

1.9 

Ronp  Phosphatp  

3491 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Bone  Phosphate  

3491 

3423 

1 

Found 

0.8 

1.4 

9.7 

2.6 

Ronp  Phosphatp  

3491 

3424 

RTIS 

Found 

0.8 

1.1 

9.8 

2.7 

Aoifliilatpd  Ronp  and  Potash 

3492 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Apidiilatpd  Ronp  and  Pota.sh 

3492 

3425 

Found 

2.0 

1 8.9 

3.0 

Ronp  Mpal  

3493 

. . . 

Guaranteed 

2.5 

20.0 

Ronp  Mpal  

3493 

3426 



Found 

1.6 

26.4 

Ronp  Mpal  

3493 

3427 

Found 

1.8 

26.9 

Packer  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Papkpr’s  Ronp  

3247 

GuarantGed 

2.4 

25.0 

Rnnp  

3247 

3428 

Evansville  . . . 

Found 

1.6 

30.0 

Pflr»lrpr^ft  TTalf  nnH  Waif  

3248 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

8.5 

6.5 

Papkpr’s  Half  and  Half 

3248 

3429 

Evansville  . • . 

Found 

1.1 

12.1 

4.3 

Packer’s  Phosphate  and  Potash 

3252 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 



Panli-pr’a  Phncphafo  qtiH  PnfaQli 

3252 

3430 

Evansville  . . . 

Found  . . . 

1.8 

10.7 

1.7 

Pa  pr  * G Sn  pprpVi  AcpVi  a fp 

3253 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

Papkpr’s  Siipprphosphatp  

3263 

3431 

Evansville  ... 

Found 

14.2 

1.1 

Standard  Phosphatp  

3254 

Guaranteed 

10.0 

Standard  Phosphatp  

3254 

3432 

^VGist)ll^^  • • • • 

Found 

9.2 

2.0 

Papkpr’s  Oissolvpd  Ronp 

3266 

Guaranteed 

4.0 

10.0 

Packer’s  Dissolved  Ronp 

3266 

3433 

Adams  

Fdund 

3.4 

9.3 

1.3 

Oiir  Wheat  Grower  

3658 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Onr  Wheat  Grower 

3558 

3434 

Brookville  . . . 

Found 

0.8 

1.3 

8.4 

2.6 

Com  and  Wheat  Special 

3659 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

33 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued 


LABEL 


Packer  Fertilizer  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  | 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special 

Our  Complete  Fertilizer 

Our  Complete  Fertilizer 


Pero  & Stoecker,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Pure  Potato  Grower 

Pure  Potato  Grower 1 

Pure  Animal  Matter  Corn  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Pure  Animal  Matter  Corn  and  Wheat 

Grower  

Pure  Animal  Matter  Corn  and  Wheat 
Grower  


Rauh  & Sons  Fertilizer  Co.,  E.  Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

Rauh’s  Ideal  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Ideal  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Red  Star  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Red  Star  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Red  Star  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Red  Star  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Rauh’s  Ph  sphate  and  Potash 

Rauh’s  Peerless  Bone 

Rauh’s  Peerless  Bone 

Rauh’s  Special  

Rauh’s  Special  

Rauh’s  Special  

Rauh’s  Half  Pure  Raw  Bone  and  Half 

Pure  Bone  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Half  Pure  Raw  Bone  and  Half 

Pure  Bone  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Half  Pure  Raw  Bone  and  Half 

Pure  Bone  Phosphate 

Rauh’s  Lawnmere  

Rauh’s  Lawnmere  

Rauh's  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Rauh’s  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Rauh’s  Pure  Ground  Bone 

Rauh’s  Pig  Foot  Bone 

Rauh’s  Pig  Foot  Bone 

Sulphate  of  Potash 

Sulphate  of  Potash 

Rauh’s  Grain  Grower 

Rauh’s  Grain  Grower 

Rauh’s  Grain  Grower 

Our  Soluble  Bone 

Our  Soluble  Bone 

Our  Soluble  Bone 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Our  Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 

Our  Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 

Our  Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 


Road  Phosphate  Cx).,  Na.shville,  Tenn. 
Read’s  Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer  No. 

One  

Read’s  Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer  No. 

One  

Read’s  Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer  No. 

One  

Read’s  Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

Read’s  Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

Read’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Read’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Read’s,  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate... 
Read’s  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate... 


Number 

V 

insoluDie 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

m U 0 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cen 

Potasn  so 
in  wat 
per  ce 

iSoluDie  ai 
Rev.  Ph 
Acid 

S 

»- 

5j3 
o O. 

1 

1 

3559 

3560 
3560 

3435 

Rushville  ...  i 

1 

1 

0.7 

0.8 

1.7 

1 

1 

8.3 

2.2 

r UUiin •••••• 

Guaranteed 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3436 

Weisburg  

"pT 

0.8 

3.1 

9.2 

2.7 

3622 

3622 

Guaranteed 

Tr'r\nr»H 

3.5 

6.0 

10.0 

Lanesville  . . . 

4.3 

5.5 

11.1 

3623 

Guaranteed 

3.5 

10.0 

3438 

Lanesville  . . . 

1 

TT/Minrl 

4.9 

12.5 

3623 

3439 

1 

Georgetown  . 

4.1 

17.7 

Guaranteed 
F'mmH  .... 

10.01 

3185 

3185 

3186 
3186 
3186 
3186 
3189 
3189 
3191 

3440 

10.4 

1.8 

Peoria  . 

Guaranteed 

j 

1 

14. 0| 

3441 

3442 

3443 

Madison  

French  Lick.. 

1 

14.61 

1.4 

p/'Mi'nfl 

... 

13.31 

12.31 

1.9 

PTr^iTHf^ 

2.6 

SiiTirn3.ri  

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

3444 

* * . 

IT'/MinH 

1.7 

10.71 

1.6 

r 60ri3.  

Guaranteed 

1.6 

4.0 

10.0 

3445 

Madison  

1.4 

3.6 

6.0 

11.6 

3.2 

3191 

3192 

Guaranteed 

i!6 

10.0 

3446 

3447 

Campbellsburg 

Found 

1 .1 

5.0 

7.4 

11.2 

9.7 

4.5 

3192 

3192 

i!7 

3.6 

Orleans  

3193 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

8.5 

11.0 

3448 

Found.  • » • • • 

1.6 

8.3 

8.9 

3193 

3193 

3194 
.3194 

3195 
3195 

3195 

3196 

3196 

3197 
.3197 
3302 
3.302 
3302 
3552 
3552 

3552 

3553 
355.3 

3553 

3554 
35.54 
35.54 

Peoria  

Trafalgar  

n Q 

9.1 

10.0 

3449 

7.9 

8.5 

F ound 

Guaranteed 

U.  V 
1.0 



3450 

Logansport  . . 

1.1 

2.4 

10.5 

11.5 

r vfUiici  •••••• 

Guaranteed 

22.0 

Lexington  . . . 
0rlG3.ns  •••••• 

fT’/MinrI 

1.9 

2.2 

29.6 

1 3451 
3452 

27.9 

. . . 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

22.0 

3453 

"PniinH  . . . 

1.8 



29.0 

J2isp6r  

Guarantoed 

48.5 

3454 

49.6 

JMipont  

Guaranteed 

4.0 

10.0 

3455 

3456 

TTnnnH  

1.8 

12.7 

1.8 

Columbus  . . . 

"Pniinrl 

3.3 

9.0 

1.1 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3458 

3459 

1 Campbellsburg 
1 Columbus  . . . 

■ 

0.9 

0.9 

0.8 

2.0 

7.8 

4.4 

1.6 

7.6 

3.1 

Guaranteed 

; 2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

1 

346C 

3461 

1 Campbellsburg 
Columbus  ... 

■ T?nnTi/1 

0.8 

l.C 

; 1.6 

8.4 

4.7 

1 2.4 

1 3.0 

9.0 

» 2.7 

Guaranteed 

o'.  8 

1 8.0 

t 1.0 

( 

3462 
1 346.'; 
1 

: Seottsburg  . . 

0.6 

0.7 

1 2.8 

; 9.6 

; 3.1 

'Pniinrl  

3.7 

9.6 

1 2.1 

» rjCKrity  . . . • . 

303/ 

30.3'! 

SOO*! 

30.3? 

.303? 

1 

1 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

; 2.C 

1 8.C 

1 1.6 

) 

• 346^ 

’ 346{ 

1 

Found  1 1 

l.S 

! 2.7 

' 6.7 

' 6.6 

i 

\ r.,rKrrLy  . • . . . 

) Seymour  

iT»  r\ 

2.2 

0.? 

1 

! 2.6 

! 9.6 

I 3.£ 

Guaranteed 

1 2.6 

) 10.6 

) 1.6 

) 

i 340( 

1 Worthington 

TT/Minrl 

, 1.1 

[ 2.J 

! 10.6 

5 l.f 

) 

Guaranteed 

10.6 

) 1.6 

) 

303? 

304( 

) 346' 

r French  Lick. 

lT/\iinr1 

12. J 

t 6.2 

5 

Guaranteed 

14.6 

) l.( 

) 

3 French  Lick. 

. Found .... 

14.^ 

r 3.1 

34 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample' 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
per  cent. 

1 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Read  Phosphate  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

1 

1 

304C 

3469 

. Worthington 

Found 

13.8 

2.3 

3042 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3042 

3470 

French  Lick. . 

Found 

1.5 

10.7 

3.5 

3042 

3471 

SejTnour  

Found 

2.4 

12.4 

1.5 

3043 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

20.2 

Fine  Ground  Bone 

3043 

3472 

Worthington 

Found 

2.3 

13  !8 

3044 

Guaranteed 

'49*.6 

3044 

3473 

Salem  

F ound 

49.9 

3044 

3474 

Hagerstown  .. 

Found 

60.0 

3045 

Guaranteed 

14.7 

3045 

3475 

Salem  

Found 

15.7 

3284 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3284 

3476 

Eckerty 

Found 

1.3 

1.8 

8.7 

5.6 

Schmadel,  Louis,  Evansville,  Ind. 

1 

2961 

Guaranteed 

4.0 

16.0 

2961 

3477 

Evansville 

Found 

3.7 

21.2 

2961 

3478 

Evansville 

Found 

3.4 

21.3 

3371 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

8.0 

8.0 

3371 

3479 

Evansville  . . . 

Found 

2.9 

6.6 

6.2 

Southern  Indiana  Fertilizer  Co.,  BoonvUle 

Ind. 

3125 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

10.0 

3125 

3480 

Boonville  .... 

Found 

1.7 

7.2 

1.6 

3343 

Found 

3.0 

22.0 

3343 

3481 

Boonville  .... 

Found 

3.1 

20.5 

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

3373 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

4.0 

10.0 

Rnlnhlp  Rdtip  and  Potash 

3373 

3482 

Boonville  .... 

Found 

1.2 

4.3 

8.3 

1.2 

Roup  Meal  

3659 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

20.0 

Ronp  Mpal  

3659 

3483 

Boonville  .... 

Found 

2.5 

27.6 

Star  Tankage  and  Fertilizer  Works,  Vincen- 

nes, Ind. 

Star  Raw  Ronp  Mpal 

3382 

Guaranteed 

2.9 

20.0 

Star  Raw  Ronp  Afpal  

3382 

3484 

Jasper  

Found 

3.1 

22.2 

Star  Melon,  Corn  and  Potato  Grower. . 

3489 

Guaranteed 

2.9 

2.5 

io.o 

3.9 

Star  Melon  Corn  and  Potato  Grower. . . 

3489 

3485 
1 

Vincennes  . . . 
1 

Found 

2.4 

3.0 

9.4 

2.6 

“A”  Star  Wheat  Grower 

3663 

Guaranteed 

4.0 

5.1 

5.8 

“A”  Star  Wheat  Grower 

3663 

3486 

Jasper  

Found 

4.4 

7.5 

6.2 

St.  John  Chas.  E.,  Greensburg,  Ind. 

Animal  Matter  ...  . 

3359 

Guaranteed 

3.0 

14.0 

Animal  Matter  

3359 

3487 

Greensburg  . . 

Found 

3.2 

16.8 

Swift  & Company,  Chicago,  Ills. 

Swift’s  Superphosphate  

2715 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

4.0 

Swift’s  Superphosphate  

2715 

3488' Can  nell  ton 

Found 

1.9 

2.0 

7.2 

4.0 

Swift.’.s  SiippT-phosphate  

2715 

3489,  Delaware  .... 

Found 

1.7 

2.0 

7.9 

2.5 

SnpprphnQphaf . . 

2715 

SA90;  Salem  

Found 

1.7 

2.1 

7.7 

6.0 

Swift’s  Garden  Gity  Phosphate 

27161 

.. 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

Sririfi-^c  riar/lpTi  PhncpViafp 

2716 

3491  [Lost  River... 

Found 

13.7 

0.8 

Rwiff’j  narHpn  Phrvcphnfp 

2716 

SAQ9iF.lherfeld  

Found 

14.0 

0.7 

Pnrp  Pnw  Rnnp  \fpal 

2755 

Guaranteed 

3.7 

^.0 

Swift’s  Pure  Raw  Rone  Afeal  

2755 



3493 

Liberty  

Found 

4.2 

24.5 

Swift’s  Pure  Raw  Rone  Meal 

2755 

3494 

Martinsville  . . 

Found 

4.1 

25.1 

Swift’s  Rone  Meal 

2756 

Guaranteed 

2.5 

25.0 

Pmip  \fpal  . 

2756 

3495 

Eckerty 

Found 

2.5 

27.0 

Swift’s  Diamond  S Phosphate  

2757 

Guaranteed 

10.0 

Swift’s  Diamond  S Phosphate 

2757 

3496 

Lost  River... 

Found 

10.0 

0.6 

Svinft’a  niamriTiH  S PhnQph?ifp  . 

2757 

3497 

St.  Anthony. . 

Found 

10.4 

0.8 

Swift’s  Gomplete  Fprtili7pr  ... 

2760 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

1.0 

8.0 

3.0 

Swift’s  Gomplete  Fertilizer 

27601 

3498!  Salem  

Found 

1.1 

1.3 

7.9 

1.8 

Swift’s  Complete  Fertilizer 

27601 

.<1499  Rekertv  

Found 

1.1 

1.1 

8.51 

5.4 

Swift’s  Ammonia  ted  Bone  and  Potash.. 

2761 

IGuaranteed  1 

4.7 

3.0 

16.0 

Swift’s  .Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash.. 

2761 

S.AOn'piherfeld  1 

Found  ...  1 

4.4 

1.8 

19.3 

Swift’s  Rone  and  Potash  

2762 

1 

Guaranteed  1 

2.5 

3.0 

23.5 

Swift’fl  Pnnp  anH  PAfflcVi 

2762 

S.AnilDiiff  

Fotind 

4.2 

0.1 

24.9 

Swift’s  Speoial  Rone  Afeal 

3084) 

[Guaranteed 

0.8 

27.5 

Swift’s  Special  Bone  Aleal 

3084 1 

3502  Salem  |Found j 1.3j 

31.2 

35 


Report  of  Inspections — Continued. 


LABEL 

r 

Number 

1 

Sample 
Taken  at 

Nitrogen 
per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
ReV.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
per  cent. 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Swift  & Company,  Chicago,  Ills.  | 

3084 

3503 

Martinsville  .. 

Pound 

1.0 

32.1 

Swift’s  Champion  Wheat  and  Com 

3443 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

12.0 

1.0 

Swift’s  Champion  Wheat  and  Corn 

3443 

3504 

Martinsville  . . 

Foimd 

1.7 

2.3 

10.2 

3.9 

3444 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

7.0 

8.0 

3.0 

.3444 

3505 

Lost  River... 

Found 

1.6 

5.5 

7.1 

3.5 

3445 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3445 

3506 

Lost  River. . . 

Found 

1.8 

9.5 

0.5 

3513 

Guaranteed 

3.7 

23.0 

3513 

3507 

Eckerty  

Found 

3.6 

23.2 

3603 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3603 

3608 

Cannellton 

Pound 

0.9 

4.8 

7.7 

1.9 

Tennessee  Chemical  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

2778 

Guaranteed 

0.2 

0.5 

9.5 

2778 

3509 

Osgood  

Found 

0.5 

1.2 

10.8 

0.6 

3269 

Guaranteed 

0.1 

0.5 

10.0 

1.0 

3269 

3510 

Osgood  

Found 

0.3 

0.6 

9.5 

0.7 

3329 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3329 

.3511 

Osgnnd  

Found 

0.8 

1.0 

6.6 

3.9 

Ox  Special  Wheat  Grower 

3329 

3512 

Cory  don  June 

Found 

1.3 

1.2 

7.1 

1.8 

3332 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

1.0 

3332 

3513 

Salem  

Found 

13.5 

1.9 

3332 

3514 

Bloomington 

Found 

13.7 

1.4 

3333 

Guaranteed 

12.0 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Phosphate 

3333 

3515 

Corydon  June 

Found 

12.2 

1.3 

Ox  Indiana  Potash  Mixture 

3334 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Potash  Mixture 

3334 

3516 

Nevin  

Found 

• • • ^ 

2.1 

9.9 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Potash  Mixture 

3334 

3517 

Oscond  

Found 

3.2 

8.7 

0.8 

Ox  Indiana  Alkaline  Bone 

3338 

[Guaranteed 

2.0 

12.0 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Alkaline  Bone 

3338 

3518 

Nevin  

Found 

2.0 

12.2 

0.4 

Ox  Indiana  Slaughter  House  Roue 

3442 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Slaughter  House  Bone 

3442 

3519 

Nevin  

Found 

1.3 

2.2 

11.4 

1.5 

Ox  Indiana  Ammoniated  Bone 

3457 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Ox  Indiana  Ammoniated  Bone 

3457 

.3520 

Nevin  

Found 

1.4 

2.3 

11.6 

1.7 

Ox  Indiana  Ammoniated  Bone 

3457 

3521 

Vevay  

Found 

1.3 

1.8 

10.6 

1.3 

Franklin  County  Wheat  Grower 

3531 

Guaranteed 

16.0 

1.0 

Franklin  County  Wheat  Grower 

3531 

3522 

1 

Salem  

Found 

13.4 

2.9 

Tuscarora  Fertilizer  Co.,  Chicago,  Ills. 

Tuscarora  Raw  Bone 

3461 

Guaranteed 

3.7 

22.0 

Tuscarora  Raw  Bone 

3461 

1 352.3 

Batesville 

Found 

3.8 

25.2 

Tuscarora  Raw  Bone 

3461 

1 3524 

Corydon  June 

Found 

3.7 

25.6 

Ammoniated  Phosphate  

3462 

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

Ammoniated  Phosphate  

3462 

1 3.525 

Afarengo  

Found 

0.9 

1 1 .5 

6.2 

1.9 

Tuscarora  Standard  

3463 

Guaranteed 

1.6 

1 2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

Tuscarora  Standard  

34631 

1 3.526 

Francesville 

IFound 

1.6 

2.2 

8.8 

2.1 

Tuscarora  Standard  

.3463 

1 3527 

HnrvfloTi  JnnplFminfl 

1.4 

2.0 

8.2 

2.0 

Bone  and  Potash 

3464 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

Bono  and  Potash 

3464 

I .3528 

Marengo  .... 

Found 

2.6 

10.7 

1.1 

Bon''  and  Potash 

3464 

1 3529 

I... 

Milroy  

Found 

2.2 

10.6 

1 .0 

Ac  d Phosphate  

3465 

Guaranteed 

14.0 

2.0 

Arid  Phosphate 

3465 

1 3.5.30 
1 

Marengo  

Found  

16.6 

0.1 

Animal  Bone  

3466 

Guaranteed 

2.4 

1 

24.0 

Animal  Bone  

.3466 

1 35.31 

Francesville 

Found 

2.6 

25.3 

Animal  Bone  

.3466 

1 36.32 

Cnrvdnn  .lunclFmind 

3.0 

26.1 

Tuscarora  Steamed  Bone 

.3.530 

Guaranteed 

1 .6 

1 

1 20.0 

Tuscarora  Steamed  Rone 

3530 1 

1 36.33 

Francesville  |. 

[Found 

2.9 

1 

[ 24.9 

Tuscarora  Steamed  Rone 

.3530 

1 .35.34 

1 

Batesville 

[Found 

2.1 

1 

1 24.4 

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand 

1 

“Sohible  Dissolved  Rone”..  . 

3612 

1 

Guaranteed 

[ 

14.0 

2.0| 

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand 

1 



1 

1 1 

“Soluble  Dissolved  Rone” 

36I2I 

1 3536 
1 

Plea.sant  Ridge 

Found 1 

17. 1| 

1 

0.2| 

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand 

1 1 

“Hich  Grade  Bone  and  Pota.sh” 

36141 

1 

Guaranteed 

1 4.0 

10. 0| 

2.0 

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand 

1 

1 



“Iliph  Grade  Bone  and  Pota.sh”| 

361 4 1 

1 .3.536 

W^olcott  

[Found 

4.3| 

[ 10.71 

0.4 

Bie  (i)  Four 

.36.30 1 

1 

iGiiarnnteed 

1 .61 

4.0' 

7.01 

Bier  C4)  Four | 

.36301 

1 .3537 

Corydon  JuncjFound | 

1 1.61 

1 4.71  8.0 

2.1 

36 


Report  of  Ins  pections— Continued. 


LABEL 

Number 

Sample 
Taken  at 

i 

1 

Nitrogen 

per  cent. 

Potash  sol. 
in  water 
per  cent. 

Soluble  and 
Rev.  Phos. 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Insoluble 
Phosphoric 
Acid  pr.  ct. 

Total  Phos- 
phoric Acid 
per  cent.  * 

Official 

Inspec- 
tion B 

Walton  Fertilizer  Co.,  The,  Cincinnati,  0. 

Diamond  Cereala  Soluble  Bone 

3155 

Guaranteed 

0.4 

15.0 

1.0 

Diamond  Cereala  Soluble  Bone 

3538 

Connersville  . 

Found 

0.3 

15.5 

1.8 

Weidman,  Augustus,  Hagerstown,  Ind. 

“Wheat  and  Grass  Grower” 

3135 

Guaranteed 

1.5 

1.7 

9.0 

1.5 

“Wheat  and  Grass  Grower” 

3135 

3539 

Hagerstown  . 

Found 

1.7 

2.2 

10.2 

1.7 

Steamed  Bone  

3525 

Guaranteed 

0.5 

18.0 

Steamed  Bone 

3525 

3540 

Hagerstown. 

Found 

1.8 

21.8 

Acid  Phosphate  

3528 

Guaranteed 

16.0 

Acid  Phosphate  

3528 

3541 

Hagerstown. 

Found 

14.4 

1.7 

Western  Fertilizer  Works,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

W'heat  and  Clover  Grower 

3396 

Guaranteed 

1.2 

1.5 

8.0 

1.0 

W’heat  and  Clover  Grower 

3396 

3^ 

Freetown  .... 

Found 

0.9 

2.1 

8.6 

2.7 

Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

3396 

3543 

Found 

1.3 

0.8 

6.6 

4.6 

Wheat  and  Corn  Special 

3397 

j Osgood  

Guaranteed 

0.8 

1.0 

8.0 

0.5 

Wheat  and  Corn  Special 

3397 

3544 

Owensburg  . . 

Found 

0.7 

1.1 

8.9 

4.3 

Complete  Fertilizer  

3398 

Guaranteed 

0.4 

1.0 

7.0 

0.5 

Complete  Fertilizer  

3398 

3545 

Owensburg 

Found 

0.6 

1.1 

8.8 

4.9 

Complete  Fertilizer  

3398 

3546' 

^Freetown  .... 

Found 

0.7 

1.3 

8.0 

2.8 

Bone  Meal  

3401 

Guaranteed 

1.7 

20.0 

Bone  Meal  

3401 

3547 

Freetown  .... 

Found 

1 2.1 

21.4 

Wuichet  Fertilizer  Co.,  The,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

! 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

“Spot  Cash  Fertilizer” 

3591 

Guaranteed 

1.5 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

* 

“Spot  Cash  Fertilizer” 

3591 

3548 

Tjeipsic  

Found 

1.3 

1.1 

11.2 

3.5 

‘ ‘Ruby  Phosphate’  ’ 

3592 

Guaranteed 

0.5 

1 1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

‘ ‘Ruby  Phosphate’  ’ 

3592 

3549 

Crandall  .... 

Found 

0.7 

1 1.4 

1 12.1 

2.0 

“Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer’* 

3594 

Guaranteed 

1.5 

8.0 

1 8.0 

1.0 

“Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer” 

3594 

3550 

Nappanee 

|Found 

1.3 

5.2 

8.4 

2.6 

“Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer” 

3594 

3551 

Rutler  

Found 

0.9 

4.9 

1 9.7 

2.8 

“Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate” 

3595 

Guaranteed 

2.0 

1 1.0 

1 10.0 

5.0 

“Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate” 

3596 

3552 

\uburn  

Found 

1.1 

1 1.2 

1 11.3 

4.3 

“Miami  Phosphate”  

3596 

Guaranteed 

1.0 

1 3.0 

1 9.0 

1.0 

“Miami  Phosphate”  

3596 

3553 

Auburn  

Found 

0.7 

1 1.8 

10.5 

2.4 

“Superior  Pure  Raw  Rone” 

3597 

Guaranteed 

3.0 

23.0 

“Superior  Pure  Raw  Rone” 

3597 

3554 

Crandall  .... 

Found 

3.3 

23.6 

“Superior  Pure  Raw  Bone” 

3597 

1 3555 

Canaan  

Found 

3.5| 

1 

19.7 

37 


TABLE  3. — Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  11,  1901.  These  are  the  legal  standard 
for  brands  now  on  sale  in  this  State.  No  tag  below  No.  2715  can  be  legally  used. 


Abbott  & Martin  Rend,  Co. . The.  Columbus.  O. 

Peerless  Bone  and  Potash  

Render’s  Bone  Meal  

Harvest  King  

Tennessee  Phosphate  

Abbott’s  Ideal  Grain  Grower  

Fine  Raw  Bone  Meal  

Tobacco  and  Potato  Special  

Hercules  Phosphate  

“A”Tennessee  Phosphate  

No.  1 Star  Phosphate  

Akin  Fertilizer  Co..  Evansville.  Ind. 

Pure  Raw  Bone  

Bone  Meal  

Anderson  Fertilizing  Co.,  Anderson,  Ind. 

A Soft  Bone  Fertilizer  

American  Agri.  Chem.  Co.,  The,  New  York.  N.  Y. 

Quinnipiac  Climax  Phosphate  

“ Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 

“ Soluble  Dissolved  Bone 

Plain  Superphosphate  

“ Special  Corn  and  Wheat 

“ Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone 

“ Mohawk  Fertilizer  

Cleveland  Dryer. Tobacco.  Potato  & Gen.  C.  Fer 

“ “ Horsehead  Phosphate 

“ “ Phospho  Bone  

“ “ XXX  Superphosphate  

“ “ Ohio  Seed  Maker  with  Potash 

“ “ Ohio  Seed  Maker  

” “ Forest  City  Buckeye  A.B.S.P. 

Zell’s  Little  Giant  

“ Dissolved  S.  C.  Phosphate 

“ Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

“ Electric  Phosphate  

“ Economizer  

“ Ammoniated  Bone  Superphosphate 

Bradley’s  Corn  and  Wheat  Phosphate 

“ B.  D.  Sea  Fowl  Guano  

“ Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash  

" Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash  

“ Niagara  Phosphate  

“ Dissolved  Bone  Justice  Brand 

“ Potato  ind  Root  Phosphate  

“ Acid  Phosnhate  

“ Soluble  Dissolved  Bone  

Cumberland  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

“ Bone  and  Potash  

" Guano  

“ Hawkpye  Fertilizer  

" Acid  Phosphate  

'*  Potato  Phosphate  

Ground  Bone  

Standard  Bone  and  Potash  

“A”  Brand  

" Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone  

'*  Guano  

" Dissolved  Rone  Phosphate 

" Acid  Phosphate  


2850 

0.4 

2.5 

8.0 

1.0 

2967 

1.6 

20.0 

3210 

Hl2 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3212 

13.0 

1.0 

3213 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3352 

1.2 

27.0 

3419 

1.6 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3420 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

1.0 

3422 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3714 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2962 

3.0 

20.0 

2976 

1.7 

1.2 

11.0 

6.0 

3317 

4.0 

17.0 

2793 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

2794 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2795 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2796 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2797 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2798 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2799 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2800 

0.8 

4.0 

10.0 

2801 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2802 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2803 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2804 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2805 

1.6 

0.0 

10.0 

2806 

2.4 

2.0 

9.0 

2807 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2808 

0.0 

0.0 

12.0 

2809 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2810 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2811 

0.8 

?,0 

8.0 

2812 

1.6 

2.0 

, 8.0 

2813 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2814 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

2815 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2816 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

2817 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2818 

0.0 

0.0 

12.0 

2819 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2820 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2821 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2822 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2823 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2824 

1 .0 

2.0 

8.0 

2825 

0.8 

1 .0 

7.0 

2826 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2827 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2870 

2.4 

20.0 

2871 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2872 

0.8 

1 .0 

7.0 

2873 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2874 

1 .0 

2.0 

8.0 

2883 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2884 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

38 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Williams  & Clark  Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 
" “ Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate. 

” “ Corn  and  Wheat  Special.. 

Williams  & Clark  Prolific  Crop  Producer.... 

Reese  Challenge  Phosphate t 

“ Half  and  Half 

“ Elm  Phosphate 

“ Crown  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Mace’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Snecial  Bone  Meal  

Indiana  Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer 

American  Agricultural  Chemical  Co..  The.  Great 
Eastern  Fertilizer  Branch.  Rutland.  Vt. 

Great  Eastern  Dissolved  Bone  

Great  Eastern  English  Wheat  Grower 

Great  Eastern  Vegetable  Vine  and  Tobacco..  • 

Great  Eastern  Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

Great  Eastern  Columbus  Special  

Great  Eastern  Corn  Fertilizer  

Great  Eastern  Unammoniated  Wheat  Special 

M.  E.  VTieeler  & Co..  Branch  of  the  American 
Agricultural  Chemical  Co..  New  York.  N.  Y. 

Wisdom’s  Choice  

Unammoniated  Wheat  Grower  

Electrical  Dissolved  Bone  

Wheat  and  Clover  Fertilizer 

Royal  Wheat  Grower  

Corn  Fertilizer  

Potato  Manure  

American  Reduction  Co..  Pittsburg.  Pa. 

Common  Sense  

Pittsburg  Guano  

Iron  City 

Century  Bone  and  Potash  

Armour  Fertilizer  Works,  The,  Chicago,  111. 

Raw  Bone  

Bone  Meal  

Fruit  and  Foot  Cron  Special 

All  Soluble  

Star  Phosnhate  

Phosphate  and  Potash  

Grain  Grower  

Ammoniated  Bone  with  Potash 

Wheat.  Corn  and  Oat  Special  

Bone.  Blood  and  Potash  

Acid  Bone  Meal  

German  Kainit  

Armour’s  Steamed  Bone  

Lawn  and  Garden  

Cereal  Phosphate  

M\iriate  of  Potash  

Nitrate  of  Soda  

Sulphate  of  Potash  

Hoosier  Corn  Grower  

High  Grade  Potato  

Armour  Standard  

Soluble  Phosphate  and  Potash  . . 

Royal  Brand  

Crop  Grower  

Banner  Brand  


2875 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2876 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2877 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2878 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2879 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

2880 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2881 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2882 

0.0 

2.0 

11.0 

3547 

0.0 

1.0 

13.0 

1.0 

3600 

1.2 

3755 

0.8 

10.0 

6.0 

2.0 

3450 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2.0 

3451 

0.8 

2.0 

8.« 

1.0 

3452 

2.0 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3453 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3454 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3455 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3456 

0.0 

0.0 

12.0 

2.0 

3092* 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3093 

0.0 

0.0 

12.0 

2.0 

3094 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2.0 

3095 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3096 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3097 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3098 

2.0 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3137 

1.6 

0.5 

5.0 

0.6 

3138 

0.8 

0.5 

7.0 

0.5 

3139 

2.0 

1.5 

7.5 

0.5 

3751 

1.0 

3.5 

6.5 

0.5 

2903 

3.7 

2904 

2.4 

2906 

1.6 

6.0 

8.0 

2.0 

2907 

2.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

2908 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

2.0 

2909 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

2910 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

2911 

2.4 

2.0 

6.0 

2.0 

2938 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

2958 

4.1 

7.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3020 

1.6 

0.0 

11.0 

7.0 

3312 

0.0 

12.5 

0.0 

0.0 

3331 

1.6 

3339 

2.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3360 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3477 

0.0 

48.0 

0.0 

0.0 

3478 

15.6 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

3479 

0.0 

50.0 

0.0 

0.0 

3480 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

1.6 

10.0 

8.0 

2.0 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

2.0 

4.n 

10.0 

3709 

0.4 

2.5 

8.0 

3710 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

3729 

8.0 

10.0 

25  0 


22.0 

24.0 


20.0 


39 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


LABEL 

Official 

Number 

Per  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (N) 

Per  Cent,  of  Potash  p 

(K20)  Soluble  in  o E 
Water.  „ 5- 

o fo 

pa 

Per  Cent,  of  Soluble  g.o- 
and  Reverted  Phos- 
phoric  Acid.  p ^ 

__  _ o cr 

rt* 

Per  Cent,  of  Insolu-  2 ^ 
ble  Phosphoric  Acid  “ | 

Per  Cent,  of  Total  ^ 

Phosphoric  Acid.  “ 

Bash  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

Potato  and  Garden  Phosphate 

2960 

2.2 

10.5 

8.8 

Utility  Brand  Superphosphate  

2988 

2.9 

1.5 

9.0 

2.7 

Par?'-on  Brand  Superphosphate 

2989 

4.0 

2.2 

9.6 

3.7 

Wayne  Raw  Bone  

2990 

4.0 

21.8 

Bone  Phosphate  

3176 

0.0 

3.0 

11.0 

1.5 

Utility  Phosphate  

3449 

1.8 

1.5 

10.5 

3.3 

Bash’s  Raw  and  Acidulated  Bone 

3476 

2.0 

0.0 

19.0 

5.0 

Bash’s  Grain  Grower  

3598 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Bash’s  Potash  Special  

3599 

4.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Bash’s  16  per  cent.  Phosphate  

3604 

16.0 

1.0 

Bash’s  14  per  cent.  Phosphate  

3605 

14.0 

1.0 

Bash’s  10  per  cent.  Phosphate  

3606 

10.0 

1.0 

Bash’s  Blood,  Bone  and  Potash 

3667 

2.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Monarch  Plant  Food 

3668 

4.0 

7.0 

6.0 

Bash’s  Onion  Grower  

3717 

1.5 

8.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Kainit  

3748 

12.4 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

3749 

15.5 

Bausback  & Sons,  Robert,  Shelby^dlle,  Ind. 

Genuine  Wheat  Grower  

3006 

2.3 

6.5 

9.0 

Soft  Bone  

3007 

3.5 

14. G 

Fine  Raw  Bone  

3008 

3.5 

22.0 

Bolles.  W.  R..  Ewing.  Ind. 

Bolles  Raw  Bone  

3633 

3.7 

22.0 

Bolles  Bone  Meal  

3634 

2.4 

24.0 

Bolles  Steamed  Bone  

3635 

1.6 

20.0 

Bolles  Complete  Fertilizer  

3636 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

aBowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Bowker’s  Bone  Meal  

2953 

1.5 

20.0 

“ Fish  Guano  

2954 

0.7 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

“ Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

2955 

0.0 

0.0 

10.0 

1.0 

“ Soluble  Bone  

2956 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

1.0 

“ Harvest  Bone  

3287 

0.7 

1.0 

8.0 

0.0 

“ Potash  Fertilizer  

3311 

0.0 

5.0 

10.0 

1.0 

“ Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash  

3459 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

“ 10  per  cent.  Manure  . . .* 

3460 

0.7 

10.0 

5.0 

1.0 

“ Tobacco  Grower  

3730 

1.6 

5.0 

8.0 

2.0 

iBuckeye  Fertilizer  Co..  The,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Buckeye  Bone  Meal  

3086 

1.6 

20.0 

Buckeye  Wheat  Maker  

3087 

2.0 

10.0 

Complete  Fertilizer  ; . . . 

3088 

0.4 

2.5 

8.0 

Extra  Superphosphate  

3089 

14.0 

Our  Special  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

3372 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Special  Blood  and  Potash  Mixture  

3616 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

Grain  and  Grass  Grower  • 

3617 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

Fish  Scrap  and  Potash 

3750 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

Buhner.  Ferdinand.  Seymour,  Ind. 

Buhner’s  All  Crop  Grower  

3316 

2.0 

1.2 

8.0 

2.0 

Ammonlated  Ground  Bone  

3327 

2.0 

17.0 

Buhner’s  Dissolved  Bone  

3486 

0.0 

0.0 

14.0 

Farmers  Favorite  

3736 

0.8 

4.2 

8.5 

2.0 

Chicago  Fertilizer  Co..  The.  Chicago.  Ills. 

Chicago  Bone  Meal  

3009 

1.6 

20.0 

Bone,  Blood  and  Potash  

3011 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

aincludes  brands  registered  by  Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  New  York,  N.  Y. 
ilncludes  brands  registered  by  the  Btickeye  Phosphate  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


40 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


LABEL 


Chicago  Fertilizer  Co.,  The.  Chicago.  Ills. 

Potato.  Truck  and  Tobacco  Fertilizer 3215 

Wheat  and  Corn  Special  3216 

Chicago  Raw  Bone  3353 

“A”  No.  1 Acid  Phosphate  3409 

Diamond  Phosphate  3410 

“A”Calumet  Phosphate  3411 

Western  Bone  Black  and  Potash  3412 

No.  1 Calumet  Phosphate  3712 

2Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co..  The.  St.  Bernard.  O. 

~ Capital  City  Ground  Bone  2885 

“ “ Wheat  Grower  2886 

“ “ Grain  and  Grass  Grower 2887 

“ “ Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash  2888 

Capitol  Tobacco  Food  3224 

“ Muriate  Potash  3322 

“ Alkaline  Bone  3434 

“ Nitrate  of  Soda  3506 

High  Grade  Guano  3571 

Tankage  3625 

Patrons  High  Grade  Phosphate  3626 

Bonus,  “A”  Humus  Phosphate 3699 

Bone  and  Phosphate  Mixture,  Wheat  Special.  3700 

sContinental  Fertilizer  Co..  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Bear  High  Grade  Potato  and  Tobacco  Grower  3283 

“ Raw  Bone  3299 

“ Bone  Meal  3300 

“ Special  Wheat  Grower  3328 

Bear  Indiana  Phosphate  3335 

“ “ Potash  Mixture 3336 

“ “ Dissolved  Bone  3337 

“ “ Special  Corn  Grower  3426 

“ “ Beef  Blood  and  Bone 3427 

XX  Ground  Bone  3524 

Bear  Slaughter  He  use  Bone 3672 

“ Bone  and  Potash  3746 

Corya.  J.  W..  North  Vernon.  Ind. 

Pure  Bone  Meal  3356 

Acidulated  Bone  Meal  3357 

Grain  Grower  3358 

Critchfield  Co..  The.  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Wheat  and  Grass  Phosphate .3647 

Fish  Guano  3648 

Standard  Phosphate  3649 

Complete  Plant  Food 3752 

Currie  Fertilizer  Co..  The,  Louisvilc.  Ky 

Currie’s  Soluble  Bone  2975 

“ Acid  Phosphate  3114 

“ Alkaline  Bone  3115 

“ Corn  and  Wheat  Special  3116 

“ Kentucky  Phosphate  31P7 

“ Wheat  Grower  3118 

“ Fine  Ground  Raw  Bone  Meal  3120 


Per  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (N) 

Per  Cent,  of  Potash 
(K20)  Soluble  in 
Water.  | 

Per  Cent,  of  Soluble  I 
and  Reverted  Phos- 
phoric Acid. 

Per  Cent,  of  Insolu- 
ble Phosphoric  Acid 

Per  Cent,  of  Total 
Phosphoric  Acid. 

1.6 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

1.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

27.0 

10.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

1.0 

11.0 

1.0 

0.4 

2. .5 

« n 

1 .0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2.8 

20.0 

14.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3.0 

12.0 

1.0 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

50.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

13.5 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

8.3 

16.0 

1.0 

0.2 

14.0 

1.0 

1.6 

1.0 

10.0 

6.0 

1.6 

4.0 

7.0 

1.0 

2.4 

20.0 

0.8 

20.0 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

12.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

1-0 

1.2 

4.0 

11.0 

1.6 

2.0 

9.0 

4.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2*.0 

24.0 

2.4 

0.0 

9.0 

2.0 

0.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

1.2 

2.0 

9.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.5 

10.0 

2.0 

13.5 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

2.5 

1.0 

1.5 

10.0 

2.5 

1.0 

1.5 

10.0 

2.5 

1.6 

15  0 

Darling  & Company.  Chicago.  Ills. 

Darlmg’s  Ground  Raw  Bone  

“ Two  and  Twenty  Bone. 


2843  ' 3.3 

2844  1.6 


21.0 

18  0 


2Includes  hrends  registered  by  Cincinnati  Phosphate  Co  CiorinTiafi.  Ohio. 
3Includes  brands  registered  by  Continental  Fertilizer  Co..  Louisville.  Ky. 


41 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 

to  contain  not  less  than 

M.S 

cd 

.2  oj 
.D  2 

3 

LABEL 

Official 

Number 

0 ^ 

of  Potl 
Soluble 

0 

_ 

aj  T- 

Co 

"t- 
>M  0 

0 .C 
P. 

0 . 

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01 

JS 

1 

P14 

CU 

Ph 

Darling  & Company,  Chicago.  Ills. 

“ v/estern  Brand  

“ Chicago  Brand  

“ Vegetable  and  Lawn  Fertilizer 

“ Farmer’s  Favorite  Brand 

" High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate.. 

“ Acid  Phosphate  

Sure  Winner  Brand  

Pure  Ground  Bone  

Sulphate  of  Potash  

D.  & K.  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis.  Ind. 

Quick  Acting  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower 

D.  and  K.  Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 

“ “ Fine  Ground  Bone 

“ “ Wheat  Fertilizer  

“ " Potato  and  Tobacco  Grower, 

“ “ Acidulated  Bone  

“ “ Bone  Phosphate  

“ “ Grain  and  Clover  

Dissolved  Bone  with  Potash  

Pure  Ground  Bone  

Quick  Acting  Corn  Grower  

D.  and  K.  Potato  Grower 

D.  &,  K.  Wheat  Grower 

Dryfus  Packing  & Provision  Co..  LaFayette,  Ind. 
Star  Brand  

Empire  Carbon  Works.  National  Stock  Yards.  111. 
Empire  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Empire  Guano  Co..  The.  Nashville.  Tenn. 

Empire  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate  

“ Dissolved  Bone  

“ Bone  and  Potash  

“ Wheat  and  Corn  Grower 

“ Ground  Bone  

“ Guano  

“ Potash  Mixture  

Empire  Climax  Acid  Phosphate  

Ewing.  George  M..  Greensburg.  Ind. 

Ewing’s  Phosphate  and  Potash  

“ Best  Phosphate  and  Potash 

“ Acid  Phosphate  

“ Potash  Mixture  

“ Complete  Fertilizer  

“ 14%  Acid  Phosphate  

Everitt,  J.  D.,  Seedsman,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Economy  Pulverized  Bpne  and  Potash 

Economy  Ammoniated  Pulverized  Bone  & 
Potash  

Farmers’  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Farmers’  Eureka  Phosphate 

“ Wheat  and  Oats  Special 

" Phosphate  and  Potash  

“ Half  and  Half  

" Pure  Bone  Meal  

L.  R.  Shepherd’s  Helpmate  Wheat  and  Grass 

Grower  

Electric  Guano 


2846 

0.4 

0.5 

7.0 

2847 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2848 

3.3 

7.0 

8.0 

2849 

2.4 

4.0 

8.0 

3244 

14.0 

3245 

10.0 

3280 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

3281 

2.4 

23.0 

3504 

48.0 

2928 

1.5 

1.9 

10.0 

1.0 

3019 

1.3 

2.1 

7.1 

2 1 

3026 

2.5 

20.0 

3027 

1.7 

1.5 

8.0 

2.2 

3028 

1.9 

4.5 

6.8 

3.0 

3029 

1.6 

8.3 

9.5 

3030 

1.1 

10.0 

1.0 

3214 

1.0 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3362 

0.8 

1.1 

7.0 

1.0 

3363 

1.6 

20.0 

3402 

0.8 

1.5 

9.0 

0.5 

3495 

0.4 

2.0 

6.0 

1.0 

3753 

1.0 

1.5 

8.0 

1.2 

2922 

4.5 

16.0 

2986 

3.2 

22.0 

3307 

14.0 

2.0 

3308 

10.0 

2.0 

3309 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3310 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3440 

2.4 

17.0 

3441 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3507 

4.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3514 

16.0 

1.0 

3324 

2.0 

10.0 

3325 

2.0 

i2.0 

3326 

10.0 

3498 

4.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3619 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

3733 

14.0 

3142 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3143 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3198 

10.0 

3199 

14.0 

3200 

2.0 

10.0 

3204 

2.0 

8.6 

6.0 

3205 

2.4 

22.0 

3282 

1.1 

8.5 

2.6 

3315 

4.0 

10.0 

42 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Farmers’  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Farmers’  Acidulated  Bone  Black  

Farmer’s  Harvest  King  

Our  Universal  Phosphate  

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  

Our  German  Phosphate  

Muriate  of  Potash  

Flower  City  Plant  Food  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Walker’s  Excelsior  Brand  “Plant  Food’’.... 

Fox  Chemical  Co..  Louisville.  Ky. 

Fox  Grain  Grower  

“ Wheat  and  Corn  Grower  

“ Alkaline  Bone  

“ Acid  Phosphate  

A.  A.  Acid  Phosphate  

Fox  Bone  and  Potash  

“ Grain  Special  

“ Ground  Bone  

“ High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate 

“ Bone  Phosphate  

“ Vegetable  Grower  

“ Early  Bell  

“A”  Fox  Formula  

Fox  Raw  Bone  

“ Standard  Acid  Phosphate 

“ Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash  

Muriate  of  Potash  

Fox  Bone  Blood  and  Potash 

“ Wheat  and  Grain  Special 

Fritch  &.  Bennett.  Greenfield.  Ind. 

Pure  Soft  Bone  

Globe  Fertilizer  Co..  Louisville,  Ky. 

Acorn  Acid  Phosphate  

Globe  Acid  Phosphate  

Big  Four  Phosphate  

Globe  Bone  Dust  

Globe  Bone  and  Potash  

Globe  Wheat  Grower  

Eagle  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Globe  Grain  Grower  

Acorn  Bone  Meal  

Golden  Harvest  Bone  Meal  

Globe  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate  

Globe  Raw  Bone  

Globe  Potato  Grower  

Globe  Progress  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

“A”  Braden  Formula  

Standard  Acid  Phosphate 

Potash  Compound  

Potash  Special  

Globe  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Wheat  and  Grain  Special 

Big  Four  Tobacco  Grower 

Glohe  Soluble  Vegetable  Manure 

Globe  Special  Tobacco  Grower  


3392 

16.0 

3393 

1.1 

5.0 

8.5 

2.5 

3555 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3556 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3557 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3716 

50.0 

3364 

7.0 

11.0 

12.0 

2728 

0.8 

1.0 

9.0 

2729 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

2731 

2.0 

10.0 

2732 

14.0 

2733 

. 

10.0 

2734 

1.0 

9.0 

3111 

0.4 

1.5 

9.0 

1.0 

3112 

2.4 

22.7 

3607 

16.0 

3609 

2.0 

12.0 

3651 

1.6 

5.0 

8.0 

3669 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

3675 

0.8 

3.0 

11.0 

3684 

3.2 

22.0 

3685 

12.0 

3686 

4.0 

10.0 

3687 

50.0 

3688 

0.3 

1.0 

11.0 

3689 

0.8 

1.0 

12.0 

3546 

4.0 

15.0 

2719 

10.0 

2720 

14.0 

2721 

1.0 

8.0 

2723 

0.8 

1.0 

9.0 

2724 

0.3 

1.0 

11.0 

2725 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

2727 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

3109 

0.4 

1.5 

9.0 

1.0 

3110 

2.4 

22.7 

3173 

2.4 

10.0 

1.0 

3608 

16.0 

3643 

3.7 

22.0 

3644 

3.2 

4.0  • 

8.0 

3670 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

3674 

0.8 

3.0 

11.0 

3676 

12.0 

3677 

2.0 

12.0 

3678 

2.0 

10.0 

3679 

4.0 

10.0 

3680 

0.8 

1.0 

12.0 

3681 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

3682 

1.6 

5.0 

8.0 

3683 

2.4 

10.0 

8.0 

43 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


LABEL 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


0 • 

CQ 

0 0 

(S  ^ 

H 

tS  p 

O , 

o 

er  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (N) 

er  Cent,  of 
(K20)  Solut 
Water. 

er  Cent,  of  1 
and  Reverted 
phoric  Acid. 

er  Cent,  of 
ble  Phosphor 

er  Cent,  of 
Phosphoric  A 

Om 

P-, 

CIh 

o, 

Hardy  Packing  Co..  Chicago.  Ills. 

Hardy’s  Bone  Meal 

“ Tobacco  and  Potato  Special 

" Tankage  Bone  and  Potash 

“ Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

“ No.  1 Crop  Producer 

“ Packers  Raw  Bone  

Security  Phosphate  

Ft.  Dearborn  Phosphate 

No.  1 Phosphate  and  Potash 

Heck  & Co..  Henry.  Cannelton.  Ind. 

Hecks  Special  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  .... 

Heck’s  Raw  Bone  

Heck’s  Bone  Meal  

Hess  & Bro.,  S.  M..  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keystone  Bone  Phosphate 

Special  Compound  

Wheat  and  Grass  Manure  

Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

Ground  Bone  

Ammoniated  Bone  Superphosphate 

Special  Corn  Manure  

Potato  and  Truck  Manure 

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

Acid  Phosphate  

Tobacco  Manure  

Hopkins  & Co..  A..  Noy  Albany.  Ind. 

Half  and  Half 

Hopkins  Old  Times  Bone  and  Potash 

Hopkins  Fertilizer  Co.,  New  Albany.  Ind. 

Muriate  of  Potash  . 

Hopkins  “Old  Times  3pecial  Crop  Grower’’.. 

“ “ “ Bone  Meal  .. 

“ “ “ Wheat  & Corn  Grower 

‘ “ “ Pure  Raw  Bone. 

“ “ “ Bone  and  Potash  .. 

Phosphate 

Half  and  Half 

“ “ “ Fine  Ground  Bone... 

Hubbard  Fertilizer  Co..  Baltimore.  Md. 
Hubbard’s  Truckers’  7 per  cent.  Royal  Seal 

Compound  

Hubbard’s  Royal  Ensign  

“ Standard  Bone  Super-Phosphate.. 

“ Farmer’s  I.  X.  L.  Super-Phosphate 

“ Wheat  Growers’  Jewel 

“ Oriental  Phosphate  

“ Columbia  Gem  Phosphate 

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

“ High  Grade  Soluble  Tennessee 

Phosphate  

“ Crescent  Soluble  Crop  Producer.. 

“ Pure  Raw  Bone  Meal  

Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co.,  L.  W.,  Frances- 
vllle.  Ind. 

Hubbell’s  Corn  and  Clover  Grower  

Hubbell’s  Special  Corn  Grower  

Kainit  


3014 

1.6 

3219 

1.6 

4.0 

3220 

1.2 

2.0 

3221 

0.4 

2.5 

3222 

0.8 

1.0 

3354 

1.2 

3414 

3415 

3713 

2.0 

3519 

0.8 

1.0 

3520 

3.7 

3521 

2.4 

2991 

0.8 

1.0 

2992 

0.8 

4.0 

2993 

0.8 

2.0 

2994 

2995 

3.2 

3170 

1.6 

2.0 

3278 

0.8 

2.0 

3279 

2.5 

6.0 

3291 

2.0 

3535 

3621 

2.4 

6.0 

2923 

1.8 

1.7 

3133 

0.8 

2.1 

3330 

50.0 

3374 

1.0 

6.0 

3428 

3.0 

3429 

1.0 

2.0 

3430 

3.6 

3431 

2.0 

3432 

.3433 

2.0 

2.0 

3664 

2.0 

3228 

5.7 

6.0 

3229 

2.4 

4.0 

3230 

1.6 

3.0 

3231 

1.6 

2.0 

3232 

1.2 

2.0 

3233 

0.8 

1.0 

3234 

0.4 

1.0 

3235 

2.0 

3236 

3237 
3276 

2.8 

3627 

4.0 

3628 

6.01 

3641 

12.0 

20.0 


8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

27.0 

14.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

22.0 

24.0 

8.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

14.0 

2.0 

20.0 

8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

12.0 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

6.1 

6.4 

5.6 

0.5 

8.5 

17.0 

8.5 

21.5 

10.0 

13.0 

6.0 

6.0 

28.0 

6.0 

1.6 

8.0 

1.6 

8.0 

1.5 

8.0 

1.5 

9.0 

1.5 

8.0 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

10.0 

2.0 

22.5 


10.0 

8.0 


44 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Hubbell  & Son  Fertilizer  Co..  L.  W..  Frances- 


ville,  Ind. 


Muriate  of  Potash  

3642 

50.0 

Hubbeirs  Grain  King 

3694 

0.8 

7.0 

6.0 

“ Hoosier  High  Grade  Potash  and 

Tankage  

3743 

0.4 

10.0 

5.0 

“ Hercules  10%  Potash 

3744 

10.0 

5.0 

Hull  Samuel.  Liberty.  Ind. 

Hdll’s  General  Crop  Grower  

3508 

1.2 

3.0 

14.0 

Indianapolis  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Corn  Special  

3292 

1.2 

2.1 

9.1 

1.1 

Soluble  Bone  

3293 

12.0 

0.8 

Wheat  Special  

3294 

1.5 

1.3 

7.5 

1.2 

Bone.  Blood  and  Potash 

3295 

1.3 

1.9 

7.1 

1.5 

Raw  Bone  

3296 

1.9 

20.0 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special  

3394 

0.8 

1.5 

8.0 

0.7 

Bone  and  Blood  With  Potash 

3395 

1.1 

0.8 

7.0 

0.7 

Indianapolis  Rendering  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Banner  Bone  

3258 

2.4 

25.0 

Half  and  Half  ^ 

3259 

2.0 

8.0 

6.0 

Phosphate  and  Potash  

3263 

2.0 

10.0 

Super-Phosphate 

3264 

14.0 

Union  Phosphate  

3265 

10.0 

Potash  Special  

3361 

4.0 

10.0 

Banner  Bone  Black  

3391 

16.0 

Our  Grain  Grower  

3561 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  

3562 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Our  Bone  and  Potash  

3563 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Jarecki  Chemical  Co..  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Pure  Ground  Bone 

2912 

2.4 

20.0 

Dissolved  Bone  With  Potash 

2913 

3.0 

12.0 

1.0 

Fish  and  Potash  Potato  and  Tobacco  Food.... 

2914 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

0.  K.  Fertilizer 

2915 

0.4 

0.5 

5.0 

1.0 

Jarecki  Chemical  Co..  Sandusky.  Ohio. 

C.  0.  D.  Phosphate 

2918 

14.0 

1.0 

Fish  and  Potash  Grain  Special 

2919 

1.2 

2.0 

9.0 

1.0 

Number  One  Fish  Guano 

2920 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Square  Brand  Phosphate  and  Potash 

3458 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Lake  Erie  Guano 

3475 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Perfection  Tomato  Grower  

3640 

0.8 

5.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Raw  Bone  and  Guano  Mixture 

3696 

1.6 

1.0 

10.0 

6.0 

Norris  Steamed  Bone  Meal 

3718 

2.5 

20.0 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate 

3719 

14.0 

1.0 

Norris  Bone  and  Potash 

3720 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash 

3721 

4.n 

10.0 

1.0 

Norris  Electric  Wheat  Maker 

3722 

2.5 

12.0 

1.0 

Norris  Half  and  Half 

3723 

1.6 

1.0 

10.0 

6.0 

Norris  Special  Fish  Guano 

3724 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Johnson  D.  B..  Mooresville.  Ind. 

D.  B.  Johnson’s  Pure  Ground  Bone  

3349 

2.4 

22.0 

D.  B.  Johnson’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

3350 

14.0 

, D.  B.  Johnson’s  Dissolved  Bone  Black  

3533 

16.0 

Jones.  J.  B..  Louisville.  Ky. 

Raw  Bone  

2933 

3.5 

21.5 

Com  Grower  

2935 

2.4 

0.9 

9.0 

2.0 

Wheat  Grower  

3067 

1.7 

2.0 

9.0 

2.0 

45 


brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


LABEL 


•2.S 


c bo 
o>  o 
Oh 


l-s 


PL, 


V,  *5 
0) 

03  o 


g-a 

o| 


Jones,  J.  B.,  Louisville,  Ky. 


Tobacco  and  Potato  Grower  

3288 

2.8 

5.5 

10.0 

2.0 

J.  B.  Jones  Snecial  Wheat  Grower  

3522 

2.4 

2.0 

10.0 

Jones  Corn  Grower 

3652 

2.4 

2.0 

9.0 

2.0 

“ Tobacco  and  Potato  Grower 

3653 

2.8 

5.0 

10.0 

2.0 

“ Wheat  Grower 

3654 

1.7 

2.0 

9.0 

2.0 

Jones  Robin.  Nashville.  Tenn. 

Ground  Phosphate  Rock  

3551 

28.0 

4Jones  Fertilizing  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

“Jones”  Miami  Valley  Phosphate 

3289 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone  

3347 

14.0 

1.0 

Potash  Mixture  

3348 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Jones  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

3565 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Jones  Tobacco  and  Potato  Grower  

3566 

1.6 

4.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Indiana  Jones  Reliable  

3567  ' 

0.8 

1.5 

8.0 

1.0 

Jones  Phosphate  

3568 

12.0 

1.0 

Jones  Bone  Meal  

3569 

0.8 

20.0 

Jones  Raw  Bone  

3570 

2.4 

20.0 

Jones  Slaughter  House  Bone 

3673 

1.6 

2.0 

9.0 

Kaufman  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Pure  Bone  

3701 

2.2 

20.0 

Acid  Phosphate  

3702 

14.0 

1.0 

Half  and  Half  » 

3703 

1.& 

1.0 

10.0 

6.0 

Special  Wheat  Fertilizer 

3704 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

Harvest  King  

3705 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Special  Potato  and  Tobacco  Fertilizer 

3706 

X.6 

6.0 

6.0 

1.0- 

Banner  Crop  Grower 

3707 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Alkaline  Bone  and  Potash 

3708 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Lawn  Sundries  Co..  South  Bend.  Ind. 

Lawn  Food  

2977 

1.0 

2.0 

7.6 

Libby,  McNeill  & Libby,  Chicago,  Ills. 

8.0 

3.0 

Libby’s  Peerless  Fertilizer  

“ Highlands  Fertilizer  

3655 

2.4 

5.0 

3656 

1.6 

7.0 

8.0 

3.0 

23.5 

“ Cabbage  Grower  

3657 

2.5 

3.0 

Lister.  Joseph.  Chicago.  111. 

Pure  Bone  Meal  

3141 

2.5 

25.0 

Louisville  Fertilizer  Co..  Louisville.  Ky. 

Bone  Meal  

2785 

0.8 

3.0 

17.0 

Special  Wheat  Grower  

2786 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Soluble  Bone  

2788 

0.8 

1.5 

8.0 

1.0 

High  Grade  Tobacco  and  Potato  Grower 

2791 

1.6 

4.0 

7.0 

1.0 

Melon  Special 

2936 

0.8 

1.6 

8.0 

1.0 

Eagle  Raw  Bone  

3297 

2.4 

20.0 

Eagle  Indiana  High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone.. 

3340 

14.0 

1.0 

“ Indiana  Potash  Mixture 

3341 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

“ Guano  

3423 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

LO 

" Indiana  Special  Corn  Grower 

3424 

0.8 

1.0  • 

7.0 

1.0 

Tanking  

3500 

5.0 

12.0 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

3501 

16.0 

Sulfate  of  Potash 

3502 

48.0 

Muriate  of  Potash 

3503 

60.0 

XX  Groiund  Bone  

3523 

1.2 

4.0 

11.0 

Eagle  Indiana  Phosphate  

“ Slaughter  House  Bone 

3564 

12.0 

1.0 

3671 

1.6 

2.0 

9.0 

“ Bone  and  Potash  

3745 

4.0 

10.0 

1.0 

^Includes  brands  registered  by  The  Jones  Fertll 

izing  Co. 

, Cincinnati, 

Ohio. 

46 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


LABEL 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


Potash 
4e  in 

Solube 

Phos- 

Insolu- 
c Acid 

Total 

cid. 

..  . 3 

T3  _• 

er  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (b 

er  Cent,  ol 
(K20)  Sol 
Water. 

or  Cent,  of 
and  Revert( 
phoric  Aci( 

er  Cent,  of 
ble  Phosph( 

er  Cent,  c 
Phosphoric 

CL, 

c- 

ftn 

Mace,  Geo.  W..  Greenville,  Ohio, 

Dissolved  Bone  and  Potash 

Big  Crop  Bone  Phosphate  and  Potash 

Madison  Fertilizer  & Glue  Works.  Madison,  Ind. 

Valley  City  Corn  Grower 

“ “ Wheat  Grower 

Madison  City  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Mathiason  M’f’g:  Co..  P.  B..  St.  Louis.  Mo. 

Increscent  Brand  Raw  Bone  Meal  

Increscent  Brand  Fine  Ground  Bone  Meal  .. 
Increscent  Brand  Extra  Fine  Ground  Bone 

Meal  

Increscent  Brand  St.  Louis  Fertilizer 

Increscent  Acid  Phosphate  

Increscent  Brand  Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash 

Increscent  Brand  Acidulated  Bone  Meal 

Increscent  Brand  Grain  Grower 

Maver  M'f’s:  Co..  A.  B..  St.  Louis.  Mo. 

Anchor  Brand  Pure  Bone  Meal  

Anchor  Brand  St.  Louis  Bone  Meal  

Anchor  Brand  Pure  Acid  Phosphate  

Anchor  Brand  Bone  and  Potash  

Anchor  Brand  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower 

Anchor  Brand  Complete  Fertilizer  

Mehrins,  Frederick,  Bruceville,  Md. 
Twenty-Six-Dollar  Phosphate 

Mendenhall  & Spilman,  Greensburg,  Ind. 

M.  & S.  Grain  Grower 

M.  & S.  Decatur  County  Special  

Mertz,  Thomas.  Richmond.  Ind. 

Common  Sense  Bone  Meal  

Myers  Elevator  Co.,  Jacob,  Francesville,  Ind. 

Ideal  Phosphate  

Phosphate  and  Potash 

Soluble  Bone  

Grain  Grower  

Michigan  Carbon  Works.  Detroit.  Mich. 

Wolverine  Ground  Bone  

Desiccated  Bone  

Homestead  A B.  B.  Fertilizer  

Homestead  Potato  and  Tobacco  Fertilizer 

Red  Line  Complete  Manure  

Red  Line  Crop  Grower  

Red  Line  Phosphate  

Wolverine  Phosphate  

Red  Line  Phosphate  with  Potash  

Wolverine  Pure  Ground  Bone  

Homestead  Potato  and  Tobacco  Special  

Monarch  Fertilizer  Co.,  Fort  Wayne.  Ind. 

Monarch  Pure  Raw  Ground  Bone 

“ Blood.  Bone  and  Potash 

“ Grain  Grower  

“ Superphosphate  

“ 10%  Phosphate  


3164 

1.0 

12.0 

3165 

3.0 

10.0 

2929 

2.0 

1.0 

8.0 

3.5 

3151 

2.0 

1.0 

8.0 

3.5 

3152 

3.4 

18.0 

3046 

3.2 

20.0 

3047 

2.5 

20.0 

3048 

2.2 

20.0 

30491 

1.5 

1.5 

7.0 

2.0 

3050 

14.0 

2.0 

3051 

2.2 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3052 

2.5 

10.0 

4.0 

3658 

1.7 

1.5 

8.0 

2.0 

2779 

3.0 

20.0 

2780 

2.5 

16.0 

27811 

12.0 

2782 

2.0 

1.0 

5.0 

3.0 

2783 

2.5 

2.0 

6.0 

4.0 

2784 

1.5 

1.0 

6.0 

4.0 

3660 

1.2 

1.0 

12.0 

1.0 

3661 

2.0 

10.0 

3662 

4.0 

10.0 

2937 

2.5 

8.5 

3737 

10.0 

3738 

4.0 

10.0 

3739 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3740 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

2894 

1.6 

25.0 

2895 

1.2 

25.0 

2896 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

2897 

2.0 

3.0 

8.0 

2898 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2899 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2900 

14.0 

2901 

10.0 

2902 

2.0 

10.0 

3448 

2.4 

20.0 

3602 

2.0 

5.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3690 

4.0 

21.0 

3691 

1.8 

2.0 

8.3 

3.7 

3692 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3693 

1.8 

1.5 

10.5 

3.3 

3747 

10.0 

1.0 

47 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


! Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 

to  contain  not  less  than 

"S  0 

rr' 

al 

cu  •-H 

0 Oh 
LO 

£ 0 

0 . 

0 

LABEL 

I 

er  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (N) 

er  Cent,  of 
(K20)  Solub 
Water. 

er  Cent,  of 
and  Reverted 
phoric  Acid. 

er  Cent,  of  : 
ble  Phosphor] 

er  Cent,  of 
Phosphoric  A 

Oh 

Oh 

Oh 

Oh 

Oh 

Morris  & Co..  Nelson.  Chicago.  111. 


Big  One  

3021 

3.2 

24.0 

Big  Two  

3022 

2.0 

28.0 

Big  Three  

3023 

2.5 

2.0 

4.0 

6.0 

Big  Four  

3024 

4.1 

4.0 

5.0 

5.0 

Big  5 

3025 

2.5 

1.0 

4.0 

5.0 

Big  Six  Special  Bone  Meal  

3303 

0.8 

27.0 

Big  Seven  High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate 

3304 

10.0 

1.0 

Big  Eight  Ammoniated  Acid  Phosphate  with 

Potash  

3305 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

National  Fertilizer  Co..  Nashville.  Tenn. 

National  Wheat  Grower  

3537 

1.6 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Old  Hickory  Guano  

3538 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

Magic  Plant  Food  

3580 

4.1 

5.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Ammoniated  Dissolved  Bone  

3581 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

Sadler’s  Formula  

3582 

2.0 

12.0 

1.0 

National  Grain  Grower  

3583 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

National  Acid  Phosphate  and  Potash  

3584 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

National  High  Grade  Dissolved  Bone  *. 

3585 

14.0 

1.0 

National  Acid  Phosphate  

3586 

12.0 

1.0 

National  Pure  Raw  Bone  Meal  

3587 

3.3 

22.5 

National  Steamed  Bone  Meal  

3588 

2.5 

22.5 

Special  Blood  and  Bone  Guano 

3725 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

Special  Old  Hickory  Guano 

3726 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

• 

New  York  and  St.  Louis  Mining  and  M’f’g  Co.. 

St.  Louis.  Mo. 

St.  Louis  Acidulated  Bone 

3377 

14.0 

1.0 

St.  Louis  Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash  

3378 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

Daisy  Fertilizer  

3379 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

Norris^  Fertilizer  Co..  Rushville.  Ind 

Norris  High  Grade  Bone  and  Potash  

3469 

4.0 

10.0 

Norris  Bone  and  Potash  

3470 

2.0 

10.0 

Norris  Soluble  Bone  Phosphate  

3471 

14.0 

Norris  Special  Fish  Guano  

3472 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

Norris  X Rush  County  Special  

3473 

16.0 

Norris  Electric  Wheat  Maker  

3474 

2.5 

12.0 

1.0 

Norris  Steamed  Bone  

3632 

3.0 

20.0 

North  Western  Fertilizing  Co..  Chicago.  Ills. 

Horse  Shoe  Brand  Pure  Ground  Bone 

2857 

2.4 

20.0 

“ “ “ Fine  Raw  Bone 

2858 

3.2 

22.0 

“ “ “ Potato  Grower  

2859 

2.4 

2.0 

9 n 

“ “ “ Corn  and  Wheat  Grower... 

2860 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

" “ “ Bone  and  Potash 

2861 

2.0 

10.0 

Melon  Grower  

2862 

2.4 

2.0 

9.0 

“ “ “ Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash 

2863 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

“ " “ Acidulated  Bone  

2864 

0.8 

10.0 

“ “ “ Quick  Acting  Phosphate... 

2865 

10.0 

" “ “ National  Bone  Dust 

2866 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

" “ “ Garden  City  Super-Phos.. 

2867 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

“ “ “ Challenge  Corn  Grower... 

2868 

2.0 

1.5 

8.0 

“ “ “ Raw  Bone  and  Super  Phos- 

phate Mixture  

2869 

2.4 

0.5 

7.0 

6.0 

" “ “ Prairie  Phosphate  

3035 

1.6 

10.0 

“ “ “ Ky-Ana.  Phosphate  

3036 

0.8 

6.0 

Muriate  of  Potash  

50.0 

Horse  Shoe  Brand  Special  Bone  Meal  

3517 

1.2  , 

25.0 

Horse  Shoe  Brand  Special  Potato  Grower 

3601 

2.0 

5.0 

8.0 

2.0 

48 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  i go i.— Continued. 


I 


LABEL 


31 


c to 
o2 


Ohio  Farmers  Fertilizer  Co..  Columbus.  Ohio. 

Fine  Ground  Bone  Meal 2944  1.6 

Corn.  Oats  and  Wheat  Fish  Guano 2947  i*2 

No.  1 Potato  and  Tobacco  Special 3207  1*6 

Wheat  Maker  and  Seeding  Down  3208  0^4 

“A”  General  Crop  Fish  Guano 3306  0 8 

Raw  Bone  Meal  3351  1.2 

“A”  Superior  Phosphate 3416 

Alkaline  Bone  3417 

No.  1 Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 3715 

Odorless  Plant  Food  Co..  Peru,  Ills. 

Odorless  Lawn  Enricher  3090  1.5 

Packers  Fertilizer  Association.  Chicago.  Ills. 

Boars  Head  Brand  Chicago  Bone  Meal 2851  2.4 

“ “ “ Ammoniated  Bone  & Pot.  2852  0.8 

“ “ “ Potash  Phosphate  2853 

“ “ “ Sure  Growth  Phosphate..  2854  0.8 

“ “ “ Soluble  Phosphate  2855 

“ “ “ World  of  Good  Super  Phos  2856  2 0 

“ Gilt  Edge  Phosphate 3277 

“ “ “ Special  Bone  Meal 3518  1.2 

Boar’s  Head  Brand  World  of  Good  Potato  and 

Tobacco  Grower  3631  2.0 

Boar’s  Head  Brand  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower..  3727  1.6 

Packers  Fertilizer  Co.,  The,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Animal  Guano  and  Potash 3435  0.8 

Sweepstakes  Bone  3436  0.8 

Acidulated  Bone  3490 

Bone  Phosphate  3491  0.8 

Acidulated  Bone  and  Potash  3492 

Bone  Meal  3493  2.5 

Humus  3697  0.2 

Pure  Bone  with  Phosphate  and  Potash 3698  1.6 

Packer  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis.  Ind. 

Packer’s  Bone  3247  2.4 

“ Half  and  Half  3248  2.0 

“ Phosphate  and  Potash  3252 

“ Superphosphate  3253 

“ Standard  Phosphate  3254 

“ Dissolved  Bone  3266 

“ Bone  Black  3390 

Our  Wheat  Grower  3558  0.8 

Corn  and  Wheat  Special  3559  0.8 

Our  Complete  Fertilizer  8560  0.8 

Our  Leader  3590  0.8 

Pero  & Stoecker.  Louisville,  Ky. 

Pure  Potato  Grower  3622  3.5 

Pure  Animal  Matter  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  3623  3.5 

Pure  Bone  Meal  3624  3.2 

Queen  City  Fertilizer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

High  Grade  Wheat  and  Grass  Grower  3511 

High  Grade  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  with 

Potash  3512 

Valley  Gem  Phosphate  3540  0.8 

Miami  Valley  Grain  Grower  3541  0.8 

Bone  Meal  3542  2.5 

Special  Wheat  Grower  3543 

Tobacco  and  Potato  Grower  3618  0.8 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


Per  Cent,  of  Potash 
(K20)  Soluble  in 
Water. 

1 

Per  Cent,  of  Solube 
and  Reverted  Phos- 
phoric Acid. 

Per  Cent,  of  Insolu- 
ble Phosphoric  Acid 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

2.5 

8.0 

1.0 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

8.0 

8.0 

1.0 

10.0 

4.0 

10.0 

10.0 

10.0 

1.5 

8.0 

14.0 

5.0 

8.0 

2.0 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10  0 

1.0 

14.0 

2.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

14.0 

1.0 

1.0 

10.0 

6.0 

8.5 

6.6 

2.0 

10.0 

14.0 

10.0 

4.0 

10.0 

16.0 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

5.0 

6.0 

8.0 

0.0 

14.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

9.0 

1.0 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

20.0 


27.0 


20.0 


25.0 


20.0 

25.0 


10.0 

10.0 

22.0 


20.0 


Per  Cent,  of  Total 
Phosphoric  Acid. 


49 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Guaranteed  by  the  Manufacturers 

to  contain  not  less  than 

LABEL 

1 

u 
ci  ^ 

’S  s 

50  3 

£ Potash 
luble  in 

f Solube 
ed  Phos- 
d. 

f Insolu-  1 
oric  Acid 

0 . 
H'2 

oiz; 

o'-' 
. d 

11 
1 s ^ 

0.3 

0. 

. 

a iio 
6 2 

oo^ 

gpH  0 

c J 

6 S* 

0 

q; 

ft. 

pH 

ft. 

ft. 

6 

B.  Rauh  & Sons  Fertilizer  Co..  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Rauh’s  Ideal  Phosphate 

“ Red  Star  Phosphate  

“ Phosphate  and  Potash 

“ Peerless  Bone  

“ Special  

“ Half  Pure  Raw  Bone  and  Half  Pure 

Bone  Phosphate  

Rauh’s  Lawnmere  

Rauh's  Pure  Ground  Bone  

“ Pig  Foot  Bone 

Sulfate  of  Potash 

“ Grain  Grower  

Rauh’s  Dissolved  Bone  Black 

Potato  Fertilizer  

Our  Soluble  Bone  

Com  and  Wheat  Grower  

Our  D-issolved  Bone  and  Potash  

Rauh’s  Tomatoe  Fertilizer  

Rauh’s  Formula  For  Muck  Land 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Read  Phosphate  Co..  Nashville.  Tenu. 

Read’s  Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer  No.  One.... 

“ Wheat  and  Clover  Grower 

“ Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

“ High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate 

“ XXX  Dissolved  Bone 

“ Bone  and  Potash 

Fine  Ground  Bone 

Muriate  of  Potash 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Read’s  Corn  Grower  Special 

20  per  cent.  Manure  Salts 

McKee’s  Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Read’s  Ground  Bone 

Scherman,  Joseph,  Jasper,  Ind. 

Scherman’s  Mixed  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Schmadel.  Louis,  Evansville.  Ind. 

Schmadel’s  Bone  Meal  

“ Mixed  Fertilizer  

Shetterly,  D.  H..  Franklin.  Ind. 

Shetterly’s  Superphosphate  

‘‘  Pure  Ground  Bone 

“ Soluble  Bone  and  Potash 

“ Dissolved  Bone  Phosphate 

Smith  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  (The)  Co- 
lumbus. Ohio. 

S.  A.  C.  Co..  Tankage  

S.  A.  C.  Co..  Muriate  nf  Potash  

S.  A.  C.  Co..  Nitrate  of  Soda  

S.  A.  C.  Co.  Tomato  Grower 

Smith,  Wm.  Jr.,  Columbus,  Ind. 

Soft  Bone  Fertilizer 

Southern  Indiana  Fertilizer  Co..  Boonvllle,  Ind, 

Premium  Bone  Meal 

Bone  Meal  

Soluble  Bone  


3185 

10.0 

3186 

14.0 

3189 

2.0 

10.0 

3191 

1.6 

4.0 

10.0 

3192 

1.6 

6.0 

10.0 

3193 

1.2 

0.0 

8.5 

11.0 

3194 

1.0 

8.5 

10.0 

3195 

2.4 

22.0 

3196 

2.4 

22.0 

3197 

48.5 

3302 

4.0 

10.0 

3389 

16.0 

3505 

0.8 

8.0 

10.0 

3552 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3553 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3554 

0.8 

3.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3731 

1.6 

6.0 

10.0 

3741 

8.0 

10.0 

3742 

16.6 

3037 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3038 

0.8 

2.0 

10.0 

1,0 

3039 

10.0 

1.0 

3040 

14.0 

1.0 

3041 

13.0 

1.0 

3042 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3043 

2.0 

20.2 

3044 

49.0 

3045 

14.7 

3284 

0.8 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3365 

20.0 

3367 

14.0 

2.0 

3439 

2.4 

17.0 

3181 

1.3 

0.4 

12.0 

2961 

4.0 

16.0 

3371 

?.  0 

8.0 

8.0 

3318 

10.0 

3319 

2.4 

22.0 

3320 

1.2 

1.0 

8.0 

3321 

14.0 

3637 

9.0 

3638 

49.0 

3639 

15.7 

3711 

0.8 

7.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3131 

6.0 

15.0 

3123 

1.0 

28  0 

3124 

0.7 

8.0 

10.0 

3126 

1.2 

10.0 

50 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901. — Continued. 


Southern  Indiana  Fertilizer  Co..  Boonville,  Ind. 

High  Grade  Acid  Phosphate  

Raw  Bone  Meal  

Muriate  of  Potash  

Soluble  Bone  and  Potash  

Bone  Meal  

Star  Tankage  & Fertilizer  Works.  'Vincennes,  Ind 

Star  Raw  Bone  Meal 

Star  Pure  Bone  Meal  

Star  Grain  Grower  

“A”  Star  Wheat  Grower 

“A”  Star  Corn,  Mellon  and  Potatoe  Grower.. 
Champion  Mellon  Grower  

Stein.  Hirsh  & Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

XXX  Raw  Bone  Meal  

X Pure  Ground  Bone  

XXX  Raw  Bone  Meal  With  Potash  

X Pure  Ground  Bone  with  Potash  

St.  John.  Charles  E.,  Greensburg,  Ind. 

Soft  Bone  Fertilizer  

Animal  Matter  

Smith  & Co.,  Emery  J..  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Bone  Meal  

Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash 

Special  Bone  and  Potash  Mixture 

Acid  Phosphate  

Swift  & Company,  Chicago,  Ills. 

Swift’s  Superphosphate  

“ Garden  City  Phosphate  

“ Pure  Raw  Bone  Meal  

“ Bone  Meal  

“ Diamond  S.  Phosphate 

“ Complete  Fertilizer  

“ Ammoniated  Bone  and  Potash  

“ Bone  and  Potash  

“ Ammoniated  Bone  

Swift’s  Sugar  Beet  Grower  

“ 'Vegetable  Grower  

Swift’s  Lawn  Fertilizer  

“ Special  Bone  Meal 

Swift’s  Champion  Wheat  and  Corn  Grower.. 

“ Onion.  Potato  and  Tobacco  

“ Special  Phosphate  and  Potash  

Swift’s  Bone  Meal  and  Blood  

Swift’s  High  Grade  Muriate  of  Potash  

Swift’s  Truck  Grower  

Tennessee  Chemical  Co..  Nashville.  Tenn. 

Ox  Raw  Bone  

“ Bone  Meal  

“ Special  'Wheat  Grower  

“ Indiana  Dissolved  Bone  

“ Indiana  Phosphate  

“ Indiana  Potash  Mixture  

“ Indiana  Alkaline  Bone  

“ Indiana  Special  Corn  Grower  

“ Indiana  Slaughter  House  Bone 

“ Indiana  Ammoniated  Bone  

Franklin  County  Wheat  Grower  

Ox  Potash  Formula  


3342 

14.0 

3343 

3.0 

22.0 

3344 

50.0 

3373 

1.0 

4.0 

10.0 

3659 

2.0 

20.0 

3382 

2.9 

20.0 

3515 

2.0 

27.0 

3516 

2.0 

8.9 

1.5 

3663 

4.0 

5.1 

5.8 

3728 

1.5 

2.0 

9.0 

2.0 

3734 

2.0 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

2982 

4.0 

20.0 

2983 

2.5 

24.0 

2984 

3.7 

2.0 

18.5 

2985 

2.3 

2.0 

21.5 

3132 

3.0 

17.0 

3359 

3.0 

14.0 

3054 

1.6 

20.0 

3055 

0.8 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3056 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3057 

9.0 

1.0 

2715 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

^.0 

2716 

14.0 

2755 

3.7 

23.0 

2756 

2.5 

25.0 

2757 

10.0 

2760 

1.0 

1.0 

8.0 

3.0 

2761 

4.7 

3.0 

16.0 

2762 

2.5 

3.0 

23.5 

2924 

5.0 

17.0 

2925 

2.5 

5.0 

8.0 

3.0 

2927 

3.2 

10.0 

9.0 

1.0 

3058 

3.7 

23.0 

3084 

0.8 

27.5 

3443 

1.6 

2.0 

12.0 

1.0 

3444 

1.6 

7.0 

8.0 

3.0 

3445 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3513 

3.7 

23.0 

3549 

50.0 

3603 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3298 

2.4 

20.0 

3301 

0.8 

20.0 

3329 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3332 

14.0 

1.0 

3333 

12.0 

1.0 

3334 

2.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3338 

2.0 

12.0 

1.0 

3425 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3442 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

.“?457 

1.6 

2.0 

ion 

1.0 

3531 

16.0 

1.0 

3735 

4.0 

10.0 

1.0 

51 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1901 —Continued. 


LABEL 


Giiarantoed  the  Manufacturers 
to  contain  not  less  than 


Tuscarora  Fertilizer  Co...  Chicago.  Ills. 

Tusearora  Raw  Bone  

Ammoniated  Phosphate  

Tuscarora  Standard  

Bone  and  Potash  

Acid  Phosphate  

Animal  Bone  

Tuscarora  Potato  

Tuscarora  Acidulated  Bone  Meal  

Tuscarora  Steamed  Bone  

Tuscarora  Bone  Phosphate' 

Acidulated  Bone  Meal  and  Potash  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand.  “Norris 

Bone  Meal”  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co..  Brand  “Special 

Corn  and  Wheat”  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co.,  Brand,  “Soluble 

Dissolved  Bone”  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co..  Brand  “Wheat 

and  Clover”  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co..  Brand  “High 

Grade  Bone  and  Potash”  

A.  B.  Norris  Fertilizer  Co..  Brand  “Bone  and 

Potash”  

Tuscarora  Garden  

Bie  14)  Four  

Tuscarora  Trucker  

SoRible  Phosphate  with  Potash 

Tuscarora  Chief  

German  Kainit  

Virginia-Carolina  Chemical  Co..  Richmond.  Va. 

Beef.  Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer  

Champion  Corn  and  Wheat  Grower  

Royal  Grain  Grower  

Capital  Bone  and  Potash  Compound  

Capital  Dissolved  S.  C.  Bone 

^Valker,  Stratman  & Co..  Pittsburg.  Pa. 

Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash  

Help  Mate  

Bone  and  Meat  


Grain  King 


\Veidman,  Aueustus.  Hagerstown,  Ind. 

Wheat  and  Grass  Grower  

AVeidman  Acid  Phosphate  nnd  Potash  

Steamed  Bone  

Nitrate  of  Soda  

Muriate  of  I’otash  

A.cid  Phosphate  

^Vestcrn  Fertilizer  Works.  Indianapolis.  Ind. 


C 

Per  Cent,  of 
Nitrogen  (N) 

Per  Cent,  of  Potasli 
(K20)  SoluI)lc  in 
Water. 

C ^ 

0 

i 

c 

‘0 

£ c 

c 
c ^ 

0 

c; 

Per  Cent,  of  Total 
Phosplioric  Acid. 

3461 

3.7 

22.0 

3462 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

2.0 

3463 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3464 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3465 

14.0 

2.0 

3466 

2.4 

24.0 

3467 

1.6 

10.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3496 

1.6 

11.0 

7.0 

3530 

1.6 

20.0 

3539 

10.0 

2.0 

3545 

1.6 

3.0 

12.0 

6.0 

3610 

1.6 

20.0 

3611 

1.2 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3612 

14.0 

2.0 

3613 

16.0 

2.0 

3614 

4.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3615 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3629 

2.8 

4.0 

8.0 

3630 

1.6 

4.0 

7.0 

3650 

4.1 

7.0 

8.0 

.3695 

4.0 

10.0 

3732 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

3754 

12.0 

3383 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3384 

0.8 

2.0 

8.0 

2.0 

3385 

4.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3386 

2.0 

10.0 

.2.0 

3387 

12.0 

2.0 

2968 

2.0 

10.0 

2969 

12.0 

2970 

3.0 

15. 0 

2971 

3.0 

22.0 

2972 

1.5 

4.0 

8.0 

2973 

0.8 

4.0 

8.0 

2974 

1 .5 

2.0 

8.0 

31 35 

1.5 

1 .7 

9.0 

1.5 

3375 

2.0 

10.0 

3525 

0.5 

18.0 

3526 

14.0 

3527 

50.0 

3528 

16.0 

3396 

1 .2 

1.5  ' 

8.0 

1 .0 

3397 

0.8 

1 .0 

8.0 

0.5 

0.4 

1 .0 

7.0 

0.5 

3399 

2.0 

8.0 

0 .5 

.3400 

12.0 

0.5 

1.7 


20.0 


52 


Brands  Registered  Under  Act  of  March  ii,  1 901. —Continued. 


Western  Chemical  Co.,  Chicago,  Ills, 

Soluble  Phosphate  

Dissolved  Bone  

Acidulated  Bone  

Eureka  Phosphate  

Ground  Bone  

“A”  Standard  Phosphate  

The  Wuichet  Fertilizer  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
Spot  Cash  Fertilizer  

' Ruby  Phosphate  

Competitor  Fertilizer  

Onion  and  Truck  Fertilizer  

Raw  Bone  and  Phosphate  

Miami  Phosphate  

Superior  Pure  Raw  Bone 

Yunker,  Gus.  Madison,  Ind. 

The  Madison  Pride 

Jefferson  County  Pride  


3403 

10.0 

1.0 

3404 

14.0 

1.0 

3405 

1.0 

11.0 

1.0 

3406 

0.8 

1.0 

7.0 

1.0 

3408 

1.2 

27.0 

3446 

1.6 

2.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3591 

1.5 

2.0 

10.0 

2.0 

3592 

0.5 

1.0 

10.0 

1.0 

3593 

0.5 

10.0 

1.0 

3594 

1.5 

8.0 

8.0 

1.0 

3595 

2.0 

1.0 

10.0 

5.0 

3596 

1.0 

3.0 

9.0 

1.0 

3597 

3.0  • 

23.0 

3150 

3.0 

18.0 

3548 

1.9 

7.5 

9.9 

3.3 

I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


30112079^593 


